applied behavior analysis
modern term for a form of functional analysis and behavior modification that uses a variety of behavioral techniques to mold a desired behavior or response
behavior modification
the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior
biofeedback
using biofeedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control.
biological preparedness
referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning
classical conditioning
lerning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex
cognitive perspective
modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides informations or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus
conditional emotional response (CER)
emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.
conditioned response (CR)
learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus
conditioned taste aversions
development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association
continuous reinforcement
the reinforcement of each and every correct response
discriminative stimulus
any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement
extinction
the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning)
fixed interval schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same
fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same
higher-order conditioning
occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus
insight
the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly (Kohler's chimpanzees)
instinctive drift
tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns.
latent learning
learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful (Tolman's rats and reinforcement)
law of effect
law stating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend to not be repeated.
learned helplessness
the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past (Seligman's dogs; depressions)
learning/performance distinction
referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior
negative reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
neurofeedback
form of biofeedback using brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior
neutral stimulus (NS)
stimulus that has no effect on the desired response
observational learning
learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior
operant
any behavior that is voluntary
operant conditioning
the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses
partial reinforcement effect
the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction
positive reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasure stimulus
primary reinforcer
any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by getting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch
punishment
any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again
punishment by application
the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus
punishment by removal
the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus
reflex
an involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice
reinforcement
any event or stimulus that, when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.
reinforcers
any events or objects that, when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again.
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
shaping
the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired more complex behavior
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
stimulus discrimination
the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus
stimulus generalization
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original condoned stimulus with the condoned response
stimulus substitution
original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the condoned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together
successive approximations
small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior
token economy
type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens
unconditioned response (UCR)
an involuntary (reflex) response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response
variable interval schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event
vicarious conditioning
classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person
learning
any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice and is different from maturation, which is genetically controlled
Pavlov
Russian physiologist that discovered the phenomenon in which one stimulus can though pairing with another stimulus come to produce a similar response (classical conditioning)
In the case of Pavlov's dogs ___________ is the stimulus and _______________ is the response.
food; salivation
Watson
demonstrated that an emotional disorder called a phobia could be learned through classical conditioning by exposing a baby to a white rat and a loud noise, producing fear of the rat in the baby
conditioned taste aversions
occur when an organism becomes nauseated some time after eating a certain food, which them becomes aversive to the organism
Some kinds of conditioned responses are more easily learned than other because of __________ _____________.
biological preparedness
The __________ ___________ asserts that the CS has to provide some kind of information or expectancy about the coming of the UCS in order for conditioning to occur.
cognitive perspective
Who developed the law of effect?
Thorndike
What did B. F. Skinner contribute to operant conditioning?
He named the learning of voluntary responses operant conditioning because voluntary responses are what we use to operate in the world around us
What is a problem with using aggressive punishment?
A person who uses aggressive punishment such as spanking, can act as a model for aggressive behavior. This will increase aggressive behavior in the one being punished, which is an undesirable response.
cognitive learning theory
states that learning requires cognition or the influence of an organisms thought processes
Bandura's Bobo doll experiment
demonstrated that young children will imitate the aggressive actions of a model even when there is no reinforcement for doing so
Bandura's 4 elements needed for observational learning
attention, memory, imitation, and desire
Real world example of conditioning
Long using shaping, reinforcement, and classical conditioning to train her cat to t0 use the toilet
Instinctive behavior in animals is resistant to ________________
conditioning or modification
Which psychologist is best known for working with children and a Bobo doll to study whether aggressive behavior is learned by watching others be aggressive?
Albert Bandura
Which of the following is one of Bandura's elements of observational learning?
memory
_____ is learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior.
Observational learning
After having many cavities fixed as a child, Kyle now has an active dislike of the dentist's drill. His tendency to become anxious when hearing a similar-sounding noise is termed:
Stimulus generalization
In a later modification of the classic Bobo doll experiment, the children who had seena model beat up the doll and then get rewarded showed aggression toward the doll. Another group had seen the model get punished rather than rewarded. Which of the following statements is true about these other children?
They did not beat up the doll until offered a reward to demonstrate what the model had done.
Whenever Vernon comes home too late on a Saturday night, his parents refuse to give him his weekly allowance. Vernon's parents are using what technique to modify his behavior?
punishment by removal
Carla was bitten by a dog when she was a toddler. She's older now, but still backs up in fear whenever a dog approaches her. This is an example of:
conditioned emotional response
A teacher has decided to give "caught being good" tickets to her students when they behave according to class rules. This teacher also rewards students with gold stars each time they improve their math speed. This teacher is using:
operant conditioning
Small steps in behavior that are reinforced, one after the other, to create a particular goal behavior are known as:
successive approximations
What are the two kinds of behavior that all organisms are capable of?
involuntary and voluntary
In a(n) ________, the occurrence of reinforcement is more predictable and therefore the individual being reinforced is more likely to adjust his response to the timing of the reinforcement.
fixed interval schedule of reinforcement
The law of effect states if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, the action is likely to:
be repeated
It is believed that animals revert eventually to instinctual behaviors when the new tasks they are learning have a strong association with:
obtaining food
In Köhler's experiment, Sultan the chimp first used just one stick that was lying in his cage to rake the banana into the cage, and then he learned to fit two sticks together to reach a banana placed farther away. This was an example of:
insight
Learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful is called:
latent learning
Further studies that followed Köhler's work with chimpanzees:
have found support for the concept of animal insight
In his study of rats in mazes, Tolman concluded that the rats in the group that did not receive reinforcement for solving the maze had:
learned the maze by wandering around in it and forming a cognitive map.
In Seligman's study on dogs, the dogs that were not conditioned to fear the tone:
jumped over the fence when the shock started.
Changes such as an increase in height or the size of the brain are called:
maturation
Pavlov initially set out to study his dogs' ___________.
digestive enzymes
_________ is the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).
Extinction
Birds, who find their food by sight, will avoid any object or insect that simply looks like the one that made them sick. This is a result of:
biological preparedness
In his classical conditioning experiment, Pavlov's dogs were conditioned to salivate when they:
heard the sound of the metronome
A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response is a/an:
unconditioned stimulus
The cognitive perspective of classical conditioning involves:
the mental activity of consciously expecting something else to occur
Pavlov's dogs exhibited stimulus discrimination when they:
did not demonstrate a conditioned response upon hearing ticking sounds similar to the metronome
After a lengthy period during which the UCS was not applied, Pavlov's dogs stopped responding to the metronome. If a weaker conditioned response to the metronome occurred at some point after this, it would be a demonstration of:
spontaneous recovery
In defining learning, "_____" refers to the fact that when people learn anything, a part of their brain is physically changed to record what they have learned, and that change remains even if the behavior does not.
relatively permanent
Pavlov believed that the CS, due to its association close in time with the UCS, came to activate the same place in the brain originally activated by the UCS. What is this belief called?
stimulus substitution
In classical conditioning, the actual response involved in a CR and a UCR are the same. (For example, it might be salivation in both cases.) However, what makes that response (salivation) considered conditioned or unconditioned depends on:
whether the organism is responding to an UCS or a CS
When children witness other children cry when getting a vaccination, and the witnesses then cry before the needle even touches them, it is an example of:
vicarious conditioning
A student in a fourth-grade class keeps talking out of turn, no matter how many times the teacher tells her to stop. Finally, in desperation, the teacher sends the student to the principal's office. This action of sending the student to the principal's office is a form of:
punishment
A behavior is more resistant to extinction if it is:
partially reinforced
The second group of rats in Tolman's maze experiment was not reinforced for finding the exit until the tenth day. Once they started getting reinforcement, the rats:
learned to find the exit almost immediately
The mental events that take place inside a person's mind while behaving are known as:
cognition
