Lifespan Development: A Topical Approach

If a simple equation could summarize a comprehensive theory of cognitive development, this one might encapsulate the ideas of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget about how we begin to understand the world. Infants learn by doing.

knowledge; motor behavior

sensorimotor; preoperational; concrete operational and formal operational. He also suggested that movement from one stage to the next occurs when a child reaches an appropriate level of physical maturity and is exposed to relevant experiences.

Without such experience, Piaget assumed that children were incapable of reaching their cognitive potential.

quality. For instance, as they develop cognitively, infants experience changes in their understanding about what can and cannot occur in the world. (e.g., baby looking at a mirrored image of its mother). pg. 168)

schemes At first schemes are related to physical, or sensorimotor, activity, such as picking up or reaching for toys. As children develop, their schemes move to a mental level, reflecting thought. Schemes are similar to computer software: they direct and determine how data from the world, such as new events or objects, are considered and dealth with.

scheme, and they are the infant's way of gaining knowledge and understanding of this new object.

assimilation and accommodation.

is the process by which people understand and experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. Assimilation occurs, then, when a stimulus or an event is acted upon, perceived, and understood in accordance with existing patterns of thought. Child see's a flying squirrel at the zoo and calls it a bird - this is assimilating the squirrel to his existing scheme of birds.

refers to changes in existing ways of thinking, understanding, or behaving in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. For instance, when a child sees a flying squirrel and calls it a bird with a tail, he is beginning to accommodate new knowledge, modifying his scheme of bird.

Piaget's initial major stage of cognitive development, which can be broken down into six substages

reflexes; assimilation; accommodation

birth to 2 years and is the initial major stage of cognitive development.

Simple reflexes (first month). During this time, various inborn reflexes are at the center of infants' physical and cognitive lives, determining the natur of their interactions with the world.

First habits and primary circular reactions ( 1 to 4 months). Infants begin to coordinate what were separate actions into single, integrated activities. For instance, an infant might combine grasping and object with sucking on it, or staring at something while touching it.

occurs when an infant repeats an action over and over. This repetition of change motor event helps the baby start building cognitive schemes. Primary circular reactions are schemes reflecting an infant's repetition of interesting or enjoyable actions, just for the enjoyment of doing them, which focus on the infant's own body.

Secondary Circular Reactions ( 4 to 8 months). Secondary circular reactions are more purposeful. During this period, a child begins to act upon the outside world. For instance, infants now seek to repeat enjoyable events in their environments if they happen to produce them through chance activities.

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions ( 8 to 12 months). In substage 4, infants begin to employ GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR, in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem. For instance, they will push one toy out of the way to reach another that is lying, partially exposed, under it. Infants' newfound purposefulness, their ability to use means to attain particular ends, and their skill in anticipating future circumstances owe their appearance in part to the developmental achievement of object permanence that emerges in substage 4.

the realization that people and objects exist event when they cannot be seen.

Tertiary circular reactions (12 to 18 months). At this stage infants develop what Piaget regards as the deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. Rather that just repeating enjoyable activities, infants appear to carry out miniature experiments to observe the consequences.

Beginnings of thought ( age 18 mos to 2 years). The major achievement of substage 6 is the capacity for mental representation or symbolic thought. Piaget argued that only at this stage can infants imagine where objects that they cannot see might be.

an internal image of a past event or object.

the ability to pretend. Using the skill of what Piaget refers to as a DEFERRED IMITATION, in which a person who is no longer present is imitated later, children are able to pretend that they are driving a car, feeding a doll or cooking dinner long after they have witnessed such scenes played out in reality.

stability; change; preoperational

thinking; reasoning; concepts

organized, formal logical mental processes

the ability to use a mental symbol, a word, or an object to stand for or represent soemthing that is not physically present

Symbolic Instead of slow sensorimotor-based thinking, symbolic thought, which relies on imporved linguistic ability, allows preschoolers to represent actions virtually, at much greater speed. For example, preschooolers can use a mental symbol for a car (the word "car"), and they understand that a small toy car is representative of the real thing. They have no need to get behind the wheel of an actual car to understand its basic purpose and use.

language allows children to think beyond the present to the future. Rather than being grounded in the here-and-now, preschoolers can imagine future possibilities through language in the form of fantasies and daydreams.

the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus (typically its superficial elements) and ignoring other aspects. For instance, asking which glass contains more water - pg 174

the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects. The main reason, according to Piaget, that preschoolers make conservation errors is because they have a tendency toward contration that prevents them from focusing on the relevant features of the situation. Furthermore, they cannot follow the sequence of transformations that accompanies changes in the appearance of a situation.

is the process in which one state is changed into another.

the inability to take other's perspectives or viewpoints

egocentric thinking

lack of awareness that others see things from a different physical perspective; and failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings and points of view that differ from theirs. Note - what egocentric thought does NOT imply: that preoperational children intentionally think in a selfish or inconsiderate manner. For instance, a 4 yr old receives a gift of socks and frowns as he opens the package, unaware that his face can be seen by others and reveals his true feelings.

talk Much of preschoolers verbal behavior has no social motivation but is meant purely for their own consumption.

covering their faces with a pillow - even though they remain in plain view. Their reasoning: If they cannot see others, others cannot see them. They assume everyone else shares their view.

thinking that reflects preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world. From about age 4 through 7, curiosity blossoms. Children ask "Why?" questions about nearly everything.

For instance, preschoolers come to understand that pushing harder on the pedals makes a bicycle move faster, or that pressing a button on a remote control makes the television change channels.

functionality They also become aware of identity, the understanding that certain things stay the same, regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance - for instance, that a lump of clay contains the same amount of clay whether it is clumped into a ball or stretched out into a snake.

identity

concrete

occurs between the age of 7 and 12. This stage is characterized by the active, and appropriate use of logic. For instance, when children in this stage confront a conservation problem (such as determining whether the mount of liquid poured form one container to another of a different shape stays the same), they use cognitive and logical processes to answer, no longer judging solely by appearance. They are able to reason correctly that since none of the liquid has been lost, the amount stays the same.

children's ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation.

the notion that transformation to a stimulus can be reversed. This concept allows children to understand that if 3 + 5 = 8, then 5 + 3 also equals 8 - and later, that 8-3 equals 5.

time and speed. For instance, consider the problem in which two cars traveling different-length routes start and finish at the same points in the same amount of time. Children entering the concrete operational period reason that the cars' speed is the same. However, between 8 and 10, children begin to understand that for both cars to arrive at the same time, the car traveling the longer distance must be moving faster.

Furthermore, they cannot understand truly abstract or hypothetical questions, or questions involving formal logic, such as the concept of free will or determinism.

they can see issues in relative, as opposed to absolute terms. When problems arise, they can perceive shading beyond the black-and-white solutions of younger days. With Adolescence comes the formal operational stage.

age 12 to 15. In this stage, people develop the ability to think abstractly. Piaget suggests that people reach this stage at the start of adolsecence, around age 12.

They can start with the abstract and move into the concrete. Adolescents can also use propositional thought during this stage.

is reasoning that uses abstract logic in the absence of concrete examples. Such thinking allows adolescents to understand that if certain permises are true, then a conclusion must also be true. For example, All men are mortal [premise] Socrates is a man. [premise] Therefore, Socrates is mortal. [conclusion]. Adolescents understand that if both premises are true, then the conclusion is also true.

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Scientific reasoning

question

a modern developmentalists that concluded that development does not really stop in adolescence as Piaget suggests. Labouvie-Vief and others have found that cognitive development continuts beyond adolescence because people are faced with dealing with the complexities of life throughout adulthood.

that the nature of thinking changes during early childhood. She asserts that thinking based solely on formal operations is insufficient to meet the demands placed on young adults. The complexity of society, which require thought that transcends logic to include practical experience, moral judgements, and values.

young adults must develop to handle ambiguous situations. She suggests that young adults learn to use analogies and metaphors to make comparisons, confront society's paradoxes, and become comfortable with a more subjective understanding. This requires weighing all aspects of a situation according to one's values and beliefs. It allows for interpretive processes and reflects the fact that the reasons behind events in the real world are painted in shades of gray rather than black and white.

thinking that acknowledges that adult predicaments must sometimes be solved in relativistic terms.

dialectical Dialectical thinking accepts that issues are not always clear cut and that answers to questions must sometimes be negotiated. Port formal thinkers understand that just as there can be multiple causes of a situation, there can be multiple solutions.

back and forth between an abstract, ideal solution and real-world constraints that might prevent implementation of that solution.

new

set pattern Schaie focuses on the ways in which information is used during adulthood, rather than on changes in the acquisition and understanding of new information, as in Piaget's approach. Shaie suggests that before adulthood, the main cognitive developmental task is ACQUISITION of information.

according to Shaie, the first stage of cognitive development, encompassing all of childhood and adolescence, in which the main developmental task is to acquire information. Information gathered before we grow up is largely squirreled away for future use. Much of the rational for education during childhood and adolescence, then is to prepare people for future activities.

the point reached by young adults in which intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, and societal contributions. During the achieving stage young auldts must confront and resolve several major issues, and the decisions they make - such as what job to take and whom to marry - have implications for the rest of their lives.

the stage where the major concerns of middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including protecting and nourishing their spouses, families, and careers.

the period in middle adulthood when people take a broader perspective than earlier, including concerns about the world. People in the executive stage put energy into nourishing and sustaining societal institutions. They may become involved in town government, religious congregations, service clubs, charitable groups, factory unions - organizations that have a larger purpose in society.

the period of late adulthood during which the focus is on tasks that have personal meaning. They no longer focus on acquiring knowledge to solve potential problems that they may encounter. Instead, they acquire information about issues that specifically interest them. Furthermore, they have less interest in - and patience for - things they do not see as having some immediate application to their lives.

postformal

dualistic; relativistic

1. acquisitive 2. achieving 3. responsible 4. executive 5. reintegrative

A Russian psychologist who wrote over 100 books. He wrote about language and thought, psychology of art, learning and development, and educating students with special needs. His works were banned in Russia because of references to western psychologist, but his writings were rediscovered 30 years ago and have been a major influence ever since. Lev Vygotsky proposed that the nature and progress of children's cognitive development are dependent on the children's social and cultural context.

culture and society determine how people engage in thought and set the agenda for education and cognitive abilities that their members expect to attain. This theory features the concept of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. He also proposes that children should have the opportunity to experiment and participate actively with their peers in their learning.

speech observed when young children are talking to themselves so that they can work through a puzzling activity or situation

range of cognitive tasks that the child cannot yet perform alone but can learn to perform with some assistance. The concept of the zone of proximal development suggests that even though two children might be able to achieve the same amount without help, if one child receives aid, he or she may improve substantially more than the other. The greater the improvement that comes with help, the larger the zone of proximal development. 187

kind of help where a parent or teacher adjusts the quality and degree of instruction and guidance to fit the child's present level of ability or performance. To Vygotsky, scoffolding not only helps children solve specific problems, it also aids in the development of their overall cognitive abilities.

cognitive devices and procedures with which we communicate and explore the world around us; includes speech, writing, gestures, diagrams, numbers, chemical formulas, musical notation, rules, and memory techniques

that babies learn best when they initiate the learning and whey they choose the object to be labeled. For instance, if an infant babbles while looking at an object, the best approach is to name the object (even if the babbling sounds like a different word). In this way, the "lesson" coincides with the infant's natural exploration of the world rather than trying to impose and experience on the child, as videos do.

are actual, physical items (e.g., pencils, paper, calculators, computers, and so forth) as well as an intellectual and conceptual framework for solving problems. The framework includes the language that is used within a culture, its alphabetical and numbering schemes, its mathematical and scientific systems, and even its religious systems. These cultural tools provide a structure that can be used to help children define and solve specific problems, as well as intellectual point of view that encourages cognitive development.

Vygotsky believed this to be the primary cause of cognitive development. The idea that children's comprehension of the world flows from their interactions with their parents, peers, and other members of society is increasingly well supported.

occurs when a more knowledgeable individual interprets a child's behavior and helps transform it into an internal and symbolic representation that means the same thing to the child as to others

various facts, concepts, and rules learned during early childhood, primarily as a by-product of other activities

psychological tools that allow us to manipulate our environment consciously and systematically

refers to the way in which young children acquire spontaneous concepts; the most observable characteristics of objects and events are noticed and used a basis for forming general concepts

involves using psychological tools to learn scientific concepts; they are gradually interalized and generalized to a wide variety of settings and problem types

when a master-apprentice relationship occurs on a computer network

(1) as an expert peer or collaborative partner to support skills and strategies that can be internalized by the learner; (2) as a tool to link learners to more knowledgeable peers and experts, who establish a master-novice apprenticeship and scaffold the student's learning

1. Cognitive development focuses on change in behavior that cooresponds to changes in an individual's intellectual abilities, with special attention to intelligence, language, and smiliar topics. 2. Piaget differed from earlier psychologists in arguing that infants learn by doing, not by listening to the teaching of adults or through sensation and perception. 3. Piaget's background as a biologist led him to use observational techniques to study children one or two at a time in their "natural habitat."

1. Piaget theorized that the foundations of the way we understand the world are mental structures called schemes, organized patterns of functioning, that adapt and change with mental development. 2. Two underlying principles explain how children's schemes grow. Assimilation consists of fitting stimuli or events into existing pattersn of thought, while accommodation consists of expanding existing patterns of thought to fit stimuli or events. 3. Piaget has been criticized for neglecting any consideration of development beyond the end of adolescence. Several cognitive researchers extend the stage approach to adulthood.

1. Piaget's theory is based on a stage approach to development, with children and adolescents passing through 4 universal stages in a predetermined sequence: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. 2. In the six substages of the sensorimotor period, simple reflexes at first determine the behaviors, then the infant's earliest habits become circular reactions, which eventually become goal-oriented problem-solving activities. In the next substage, infants deliberately vary their actions as if conducting experiments, and in the final substages, they begin to produce mental representations of events or objects. 3. The preoperational stage occurs during the preschool years, as children use symbolic thinking, reasoning, and concepts increases. The preoperational stage has several limitations, including centration, a failure to to conserve, an incomplete understanding of transformation, and egocentrism. 4. Concrete operational thought develops during the early adolescent years. This stage is characterized by the active and appropriate use of logic. However, individuals in this stage are still limited to concrete reality and unable to deal with abstract or hypothetical questions. 5. Piaget's final stage, the formal operational stage, occurs in late adolescence as people develop the ability to think abstractly.

1. Despite Piaget's great influence on the field, specific aspects of his theory have been criticized, including the concept of stages that form the basis of his theory and what many critics perceive as hie persistent underestimation of children's abilities. We have also noted the criticism that his theory neglects ongoing cognitive development in adulthood. 2. Gisela Labouvie-Vief maintains that postformal thought develops in young adulthood. Postformal thinking suprasses logic to encompass interpretive and subjective thinking. 3. William Perry suggests that people move from dualistic thinking to relativistic thinking during early adulthood, and K. Warner Schaie argue that adults pass through the acquisitive, achieving, responsible, executive, and reintegrative stages in the way they use information.

1. In Vygotsky's view, cognitive development is the product of culture and of social interactions. 2. Vygotsky notes that children learn best by participating in active learning through child-adult and child-child interactions that fall within each child's zone of proximal development. 3. He also observed that learners need support - a precess called scaffolding - to encourage their learning and problem solving until they achieve independence and growth. 4. Vygotsky's views are respected because they represent a consistent theoretical system and are consistent with modern research on learning and cognitive development. 5. Critics contend that Vygotsky's theories lack precision and lend themselves only with difficulty to experimental tests. Furthermore, Vygotsky never addressed some of hte major topics in cognitive development, such as attention and memory, and dealt only slightly with intelligence.