classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov's method of conditioning, in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus
stimulus
anything that elicits a response
response
a reaction to a stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that automatically elicits a response, as meat causes salivation
unconditioned response
an automatic response to a particular natural stimulus, such as salivation to meat
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with a natural (or unconditioned) stimulus
conditioned response
a response to a stimulus that is brought about by learning-for example, salivating at the word pickle
stimulus generalization
process in which a response spreads from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble the original
extinction
the gradual loss of an association over time
spontaneous recovery
the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response
operant conditioning
conditioning that results from the individual's actions and the consequences they cause
reinforcement
something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency to repeat that response
primary reinforcement
something necessary for psychological or physical survival that is used as a reward
secondary reinforcement
anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer, such as money
positive reinforcement
reinforcement that involves strengthening the tendency to repeat a response by following it with the addition of something pleasant
negative reinforcement
reinforcement that involves strengthening a response by following it with the removal of something unpleasant
punishment
the process of weakening a response by following it with unpleasant consequences
generalization
a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one
discrimination learning
learning to tell the difference between one event or object and another; the reverse of generalization
shaping
the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer approximations of it
chaining
reinforcing the connection between the parts of a sequence
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement given each time a behavior occurs
schedules of reinforcement
different methods of reinforcing
partial reinforcement schedule
reinforcement not given each time an act is performed
variable ratio schedule
schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a desired act is performed a specific but variable number of times
fixed ratio schedule
schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a desired act is performed a fixed number of times
variable interval schedule
schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a desired act is performed following a variable amount of time
fixed interval schedule
schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a desired act is performed following a fixed amount of time
social learning
learning from the behavior of others
observational learning
a form of social learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others
cognitive approach
an approach to the study of learning that emphasizes abstract mental processes and previous knowledge
latent learning
learning that is not obvious but goes on under the surface
expectancies
beliefs about our ability to perform an action and to get the desired reward
reinforcement value
the preference for certain types of reinforcement over other types
cognitive map
a mental image of where one is located in space
strategies
methods for solving problems
