Psychology Chapter 8

Aka student centered instruction- theory of learning which states that students must individually discover and transform complex info, checking new information against old rules and revising rules when they no longer work. Students take the active role in learning. Teachers function as "guides on the side"

1. zone of proximal development 2. social nature of learning 3. cognitive apprenticeship 4. scaffolding aka mediated learning

- A key concept is the idea that children learn best the concepts that are in their zones of proximal development. As discussed in Chapter 2, a child's zone of proximal development marks the range of tasks the child might not be able to do alone but can do with the assistance of peers or adults.

Children learn, he proposed, through joint interactions with adults and more capable peers. On cooperative projects, such as in Mr. Dunbar's class, children are exposed to their peers' thinking processes; this method not only makes the learning outcome available to all students, but also makes other students' thinking processes available to all. Vygotsky noted that successful problem- solvers talk themselves through difficult problems. In cooperative groups, children can hear this inner speech out loud and learn how successful problem- solvers are thinking through their approaches.

Another concept derived from Vygotsky that emphasizes both the social nature of learning and the zone of proximal development is cognitive apprenticeship. This term refers to the process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older, more advanced peer. In many occupations, new workers learn their jobs through a process of apprenticeship in which they work closely with experts who provide models, give feedback to less experienced workers, and gradually socialize new workers into the norms and behaviors of the profession. Student teaching is a form of apprenticeship. Constructivist theorists suggest that teachers transfer this long- standing and highly effective model of teaching and learning to day-to-day activities in classrooms, by engaging students in complex tasks and helping them through these tasks.

Finally, Vygotsky's emphasis on scaffolding, or mediated learning, is important in modern constructivist thought. Current interpretations of Vygotsky's ideas emphasize the idea that students should be given complex, difficult, realistic tasks and then be given enough help to achieve these tasks (rather than being taught little bits of knowledge that are expected someday to build up to complex tasks). This principle is used to support the classroom use of projects, simulations, explorations in the community, writing for real audiences, and other authentic tasks. The term, situated learning is used to describe learning that takes place in real-life, authentic tasks. This perspective emphasizes learning in depth, rather than learning that is a mile wide and an inch deep.

This term refers to the process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older or more advanced peer. New workers learn their jobs through a process of apprenticeship in which they work closely with experts who provide models, give feedback to less experienced workers, and gradually socialize new workers into the norms and behaviors of the profession.

the teacher guides instruction by means of scaffolding to help students master and internalize the skills that permit high cognitive functioning

- The term top-down means that students begin with complex problems to solve and then work out or discover (with your guidance) the basic skills required. For example, students might be asked to write compositions and only later learn about spelling, grammar, and punctuation. This top-down processing approach is contrasted with the traditional bottom-up strategy, in which basic skills are gradually built into more complex skills

instructional approaches in which students work in small, mixed-ability groups.

students start with complex problems to solve and then discover (with the help of a teacher) the basic skills needed to solve the problem

students are self-motivated to learn, have knowledge of effective learning strategies and when to use them. One who has knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them. For example, self-regulated learners know how to break complex problems into simpler steps or to test out alternative solutions, they know how and when to skim and how and when to read for deep understanding, and they know how to write to persuade and how to write to inform. Furthermore, self-regulated learners are motivated by learning itself, not only by grades or others' approval, and they are able to stick to a long-term task until it is done. When students have both effective learning strategies and the motivation and persistence to apply these strategies until a job is done to their satisfaction, then they are likely to be effective learners and to have a lifelong motivation to learn. Programs that teach children self-regulated learning strategies have been found to increase students' achievement.

- instructional approaches in which students work in small, mixed-ability groups. Research generally supports cooperative learning methods as long as the following two conditions are met: contingent group reward and individual accountability.

A group reward or recognition must be offered contingent on all group members' performance: this shows group members that is in their best interest to help their group mates learn

everyone is held accountable for learning the material- eg independent tests, or grades. Without this, it is likely that group work and therefore learning is uneven (more to some students) and other students get shut out of the process

Students will more easily discover and comprehend difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems. Again, the emphasis on the social nature of learning and the use of groups of peers to model appropriate ways of thinking and expose and challenge each other's misconceptions are key elements of Piaget's and Vygotsky's cognitive concepts.

Facilitator, organizer, or "Guide on the side".

1. student teams-achievement divisions 2. cooperative integrated reading composition 3. jigsaw 4. jigsaw 2 5. cooperative scripting

: Students are assigned to four- member learning teams in Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD). The groups are mixed in performance level, gender, and ethnicity. The teacher presents a lesson, and then students work within their teams to make sure that all team members have mastered the lesson. Finally, all students take individual quizzes on the material, at which time they may not help one another. Teach- Present the lesson; Team study- students work on worksheets in teams to master the materials; Test- students take individual quizzes to test the knowledge of all team members; Team recognition- team scores are calculated by combining individual scores, and rewards or recognition is given to high scoring teams.

involves students working in four- member cooperative learning teams. They engage in a series of activities with one another, including reading to one another; making predictions about how narrative stories will come out; summarizing stories to one another; writing responses to stories; and practicing spelling, decoding, and vocabulary. They also work together to master main ideas and other comprehension skills. During language arts periods, students engage in writing drafts, revising and editing one another's work, and preparing for publication of team books.

students work in six member teams on academic material broken into sections; each member assigned a section to be the expert; In class groups of experts working on the same section meet & discuss; Experts go back to team and share sections with team members.

(a modification of the first jigsaw) all students read a common text (instead of a unique section), then assigned to groups of four and five and expert sessions. Experts meet & discuss, share with group. Then all group members take the same individual quiz to assess learning

students work in pairs and take turns summarizing sections of the material for one another. While one student summarizes, the other listens and corrects any errors or omissions. Then the two students switch roles, continuing in this manner until they have covered all the material to be learned.

coming up with many different creative solutions to the problem before evaluating each solution

This approach, designed primarily to help low achievers in elementary and middle schools learn reading comprehension, involves the teacher working with small groups of students. Initially, you model questions students might ask as they read, but students are soon appointed to act as " teacher" to generate questions for each other. Ex: Note in the example how the teacher directs the conversation about crows at first but then turns the responsibility over to Jim (who is about to turn it over to another student as the example ends). The teacher is modeling the behaviors she wants the students to be able to do on their own and then changes her role to that of facilitator and organizer as the students begin to generate the actual questions.

Constructivist approach for reading. In this method, children in grades 3- 9 are taught to see the authors of factual material as real, fallible people and to then engage in simulated " dialogues" with the authors. As the students are reading a text, stop them from time to time to ask questions such as " What is the author trying to say, or what does she want us to know?" and then follow up with questions such as " How does that fit in with what she said before?" Ultimately, the students themselves take responsibility for formulating questions of the author's intent and meaning.

In creative problem solving, one important principle is to avoid rushing to a solution; instead, it is useful to pause and reflect on the problem and think through, or incubate, several alternative solutions before choosing a course of action.

A problem- solving technique that encourages identifying the goal (ends) to be attained, the current situation, and what needs to be done (means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions.

In creative problem solving, students should be encouraged to suspend judgment and consider all possibilities before trying out a solution. One specific method based on this principle is called brainstorming, in which two or more individuals suggest as many solutions to a problem as they can think of, no matter how seemingly ridiculous

Creative problem solving is enhanced by a relaxed, even playful environment. Perhaps even more important, students who are engaging in creative problem solving must feel that their ideas will be accepted. People who do well on tests of creative problem solving seem to be less afraid of making mistakes and appearing foolish than those who do poorly. Successful problem solvers also seem to treat problem- solving situations more playfully, implying that a relaxed, fun atmosphere is important in the process

One frequently suggested method of creative problem solving is to analyze and juxtapose major characteristics or specific elements of a problem

One key to teaching problem solving is providing problems that intrigue and engage children. The same problem- solving skills can be presented in boring contexts or compelling scenarios to students, and this matters in the outcomes

Perhaps the most effective way to teach problem solving is to provide students with a great deal of practice on a wide variety of problem types, giving feedback not only on the correctness of their solutions but also on the process by which they arrived at the solutions.

The most widely known and extensively researched of several thinking- skills programs. Students work through a series of paper- and- pencil exercises intended to build such intellectual skills as categorization, comparison, orientation in space, and numerical progression. The Instrumental Enrichment treatment is meant to be administered for 3 to 5 hours per week over a period of at least 2 years, usually to adolescents who are underachievers or have learning disabilities. Studies of this duration have found that the program has positive effects on tests of aptitude, such as IQ tests, but generally not on achievement.

Revised in 1997, this publication presents a consensus view of principles of learning and motivation among prominent educational psychologists primarily working within the constructivist tradition. 14 principles. The Learner- Centered Psychological Principles paint a picture of the learner as actively seeking knowledge by (1) reinterpreting information and experience for himself or herself, (2) feeling self-motivated by the quest for knowledge (rather than by grades or other rewards), (3) working with others to socially construct meaning, and (4) becoming aware of his or her own learning strategies and capable of applying them to new problems or circumstances.

A team competition for prizes, privileges, and special activities. Check marks are recorded on the blackboard for a team when disruptive behavior of any team member occurs. If the check marks for a team remain below a pre-set number (4) by the end of the Game the team wins. All teams may win if their check marks do not exceed the pre-set number (4).

Research is generally mixed: some research supports the use of constructivist methods in science, math, reading and writing. • Other research finds explicit teaching to be more effective There is a lot more research supporting explicit teaching, so I generally prefer this approach; perhaps use constructivist activity occasionally. Furthermore, a study by Knapp (1995) found a correlation between use of more constructivist approaches and achievement gains in high- poverty schools. Weinberger and McCombs observed that students who reported more learner- centered methods being used in their classrooms performed at a higher level than other students.

Research is generally mixed: some research supports the use of constructivist methods in science, math, reading and writing. • Other research finds explicit teaching to be more effective There is a lot more research supporting explicit teaching, so I generally prefer this approach; perhaps use constructivist activity occasionally. Furthermore, a study by Knapp (1995) found a correlation between use of more constructivist approaches and achievement gains in high- poverty schools. Weinberger and McCombs observed that students who reported more learner- centered methods being used in their classrooms performed at a higher level than other students.

1. Distinguish between verifiable facts and opinions 2. Distinguish relevant from irrelevant information, claims or reasons 3. Determine the factual accuracy of a statement 4. Determine the credibility of a source 5. Identify ambiguous claims or arguments 6. Identify unstated assumptions 7. Detect bias 8. Identify logical fallacies 9. Recognize logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning 10. Determine the strength of an argument of claim

A model of effective instruction that focuses on elements that teachers can directly control: Quality, Appropriate level of instruction, Incentive, Time.

how well do you teach; the degree to which the lesson makes sense to the students, Organized, Relate new information to old info, Use examples, demonstrations. You need to continuously monitor how well students are learning the lesson and adapt your teaching accordingly

Instruction must be at the appropriate level; not too hard, not too easy (the zone of proximal development) The difficulty here is that students greatly differ in their levels of understanding.

providing motivation to learn the material; Can result from interesting material, student's personal interest in learning, or from using rewards and recognition to boost student motivation.

Teachers should allot adequate time for instruction. Of the allotted time, the time the teacher actually uses to teach is most important.

) methods focus on problems that typically have less clear expected outcomes or instructional objectives than other approaches. Methods of this kind are often referred to as collaborative learning methods.