Chapter 6 Terms Psychology Free Essay Example from StudyTiger

Psychologists use the word _____ to refer to the processes whereby the brain collects, stores, and retrieves information for later use. A) memory B) learning C) intelligence D) sensation

Dr.

Handy is a psychologist who studies how the brain collects, stores, and retrieves information for later use. Which is the BEST term for Dr. Handy's area of interest? A) intelligence B) memory C) cognition D) learning

Which of these is NOT one of the three general memory processes identified at the beginning of the chapter? A) encoding B) perception C) storage D) retrieval

Which of the following sequences BEST reflects the order in which memory processes occur, from first to last? A) storage, encoding, retrieval B) storage, retrieval, encoding C) encoding, retrieval, storage D) encoding, storage, retrieval

While a computer's hard drive may be likened to the memory process of storage, its keyboard is analogous to the process of: A) retrieval. B) chunking.

C) encoding. D) decay.

How does the brain's memory system differ from that of a computer? A) The brain can only process one type of information at a time. B) The brain's neurons communicate in a more complex manner than what occurs within electrical circuits. C) The brain's storage capacity is more limited than that of a computer. D) The brain preserves information exactly as it was encoded.

Clarice presses the Ctrl and S keys on her keyboard to save a document. A file is then created on her computer's hard drive. Clarice's action is MOST analogous to the memory activity of: A) storage. B) encoding. C) retrieval. D) interference.

Amelia remarks that she needs to learn the text's section on the structures of the brain for an upcoming test. Brian responds that he couldn't remember the function of the hippocampus on a test the preceding day. Amelia is making reference to the memory process called _____. Brian is referring to the memory process called _____. A) encoding; storage B) retrieval; encoding C) retrieval; storage D) encoding; retrieval

Preserving information is to accessing information as _____ is to _____. A) storage; encoding B) storage; retrieval C) encoding; retrieval D) retrieval; storage

When one uses the term "remembering" in day-to-day life, one is making reference to the memory process of: A) rehearsal.

B) retrieval. C) encoding. D) storage.

When answering such questions as "Who was your date to the junior prom?" or "What costume did you wear last Halloween?" a person is relying MOST explicitly on the memory process of: A) rehearsal. B) encoding.

C) retrieval. D) storage.

The textbook describes the case of Clive Wearing, who suffered a brain infection called encephalitis. After the infection, Clive could not retain new information for more than a few seconds.

His memory process of _____ was impaired. A) encoding B) storage C) transfer D) retrieval

Almost everybody has had the feeling of knowing the answer to a question, but not being quite able to say it. This is called the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon, and is a failure of: A) encoding. B) retrieval. C) storage. D) rehearsal.

A "one-hit-wonder" song popular 5 years ago comes on the radio. "I used to love this song!" Clyde exclaims. "Who sang it?" "Oh! I know! It's . . . it's .

. . Darn! It's on the tip of my tongue!" Ralph responds. Ralph is experiencing a failure of the memory process called: A) encoding. B) transfer. C) storage.

D) retrieval.

"I know it! It's um . . . um .

. . It starts with 'G'," begins a trivia game contestant excitedly. The contestant is falling prey to the _____ phenomenon. A) tip-of-the-tongue B) maintenance rehearsal C) flashbulb memory D) recency

Based on the textbook's discussion, memory competitors appear to differ from other people mainly in their: A) overall intelligence.

B) brain structure. C) neural processing speed. D) memory strategies.

Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of stages in the information processing model of memory? A) short-term memory > sensory memory > long-term memory B) short-term memory > working memory > long-term memory C) sensory memory > short-term memory > long-term memory D) sensory memory > long-term memory > short-term memory

Which sequence correctly arranges the information-processing stages of memory in order of increasing capacity? A) sensory memory > short-term memory > long-term memory B) short-term memory > long-term memory > sensory memory C) sensory memory > long-term memory > short-term memory D) short-term memory > sensory memory > long-term memory

Which stage in the information-processing model of memory has the smallest capacity? A) sensory memory B) echoic memory C) short-term memory D) long-term memory

Which statement about the information processing model of memory is true? A) Sensory memory is the last of the three stages in the model. B) Short-term memory has the smallest capacity of the three stages.

C) The capacity of sensory memory is small. D) Long-term memory has a limited capacity.

In the information-processing model of memory, _____ memory can be described as "high capacity, long duration." A) sensory B) iconic C) short-term D) long-term

Which statement describes a potential flaw of the information-processing model of memory? A) Sensory memory may be an aspect of perception rather than one of memory. B) No clear boundary may actually exist between short-term memory and long-term memory. C) The model may be overly simplistic.

D) All these statements describe potential flaws of the information-processing model of memory.

The levels of processing framework: A) assumes that the longer material is in short-term memory, the deeper its memory traces will be. B) is primarily concerned with a type of memory called "procedural." C) suggests that thinking about material leads to better memory than simply repeating the material to oneself. D) holds that meaningless material produces greater depth of processing than does material that can be fitted into meaningful contexts.

The levels of processing framework proposes that the ease with which information is remembered may be traced to differences in the processing that occur during: A) encoding.

B) storage. C) retrieval. D) any stage of the memory process.

Dr. Fernald is conducting a memory experiment. One group of participants has to decide whether each of a list of words begins with the same letter as a target word; a second group has to determine whether each of a list of words rhymes with a target word; finally, a third group has to determine whether each of a list of words is a synonym or an antonym of a target word.

Later, all participants are asked to recall the list words. According to the levels of processing framework, which group will perform the best and which group will perform the worst? A) best - synonym/antonym group; worst - same letter group B) best - same letter group; worst - synonym/antonym group C) best - rhyme group; worst - same letter group D) The theory suggests that the groups should perform equivalently.

According to the levels of processing framework, which of the following study techniques would BEST enhance memory? A) highlighting important passages in the text B) reading aloud important passages in the text C) focusing on the meaning of important passages in the text D) visualizing pages from the text, then "reading" the material contained in them

According to the levels of processing framework, which of the following students should retrieve information more successfully on classroom tests? A) Grant, who attempts to memorize his notes B) Irene, who attempts to relate her notes to information she has learned in other classes C) Grant and Irene should retrieve information equally well on tests. D) The levels of processing framework makes no prediction in this situation.

Research reviewed in the textbook suggests that practice tests: A) decrease memory for material by increasing anxiety. B) increase memory for material.

C) have little effect on memory for material. D) have unpredictable effects on memory for material.

In one study described in the text, a sample of college students studied English-Swahili word pairs. Half the students took a practice test before studying the pairs a second time.

The remaining students simply restudied the words. Lastly, all students' memory for the word pairs was assessed a week later on a final exam. In this study, the practice test group is the _____ group. Students' final exam memory score is the _____ variable. A) control; dependent B) control; independent C) experimental; dependent D) experimental; independent

Psychologists use the term _____ memory to refer to photographic visual impressions that last less than a second.

A) echoic B) iconic C) eidetic D) episodic

Which of the following statements BEST describes the relationship between iconic and echoic memory on the one hand, and sensory memory on the other? A) Iconic and echoic memory are components of sensory memory. B) Iconic and echoic memory are types of memory, of which sensory memory is a part. C) Iconic and echoic memory are different types of memory than sensory memory. D) Iconic and echoic memory are different types of sensory memory.

Information may last for _____ seconds in sensory memory, and the capacity of sensory memory is _____.

A) a few; small B) a few; large C) about 30; small D) about 30; large

The study of sensory memory is associated with: A) George Miller. B) Elizabeth Loftus. C) George Sperling. D) Hermann Ebbinghaus.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, psychologist George Sperling conducted important studies of _____ memory. A) sensory B) short-term C) working D) long-term

George Sperling conducted a study in which he varied the interval between the presentation of a letter matrix and an auditory recall cue.

Sperling measured the proportion of letters participants could recall from the matrix. Which statement regarding this study is false? A) A graph of the results of this study would show the accuracy of recall on the y-axis. B) The interval between the matrix and the cue is a dependent variable. C) The function relating the accuracy of recall to the interval between the matrix and the cue is a decreasing function, asymptoting at an interval of around 1 s. D) All of these statements are true.

Using the partial report technique, George Sperling estimated that sensory memory stored at least _____% of the letters in a briefly-flashed array.

A) 25 B) 50 C) 65 D) 75

Iconic memory is to echoic memory as _____ is to _____. A) 10 seconds; 1 second B) 1 second; 10 seconds C) accurate; inaccurate D) inaccurate; accurate

The phenomenon of _____ imagery is fairly similar to what people commonly call "photographic memory." A) eidetic B) elaborative C) echoic D) engrammatic

Compared to iconic memory, echoic memory: A) does not last as long. B) is less accurate. C) lasts longer.

D) is more accurate.

A psychological scientist states that she is interested in a brief type of memory store she calls "olfactory memory," which is a type of _____ memory. A) iconic B) short-term C) sensory D) long-term

The duration of short-term memory is about: A) 1 to 10 seconds. B) 20 to 30 seconds. C) 1 to 2 minutes.

D) 20 to 30 minutes.

Cissy looks up a number in the phone book, pushes the book away, and then dials the number. Why does she discourage any interruptions during this process? A) Information lasts only 20-30 seconds in short-term memory. B) Information lasts only 5-6 seconds in short-term memory.

C) Information can only last a minute or so in short-term memory. D) Short-term memory can only hold one or two items.

How does short-term memory differ from sensory memory? A) Its capacity is larger than that of sensory memory. B) Its duration is shorter than that of sensory memory. C) Its capacity is smaller than that of sensory memory, and its duration is shorter. D) Its duration is longer than that of sensory memory.

In one study, Bowman et al. (2010) found that college students holding IM conversations while studying a textbook passage: A) took longer to read the passage. B) performed more poorly on a test of the material. C) took longer to read the passage and also performed more poorly on a later test. D) neither read the passage more slowly, nor performed more poorly on a later test.

Junco and Cotten (2012) found a _____ correlation between college students' GPA and the amount of time they spend texting and using Facebook.

A) negative B) minimal C) positive D) perfect

Texting while driving increases the likelihood of an accident by a factor of: A) nearly 2. B) 10. C) 15. D) more than 20.

Compared to alcohol intoxication, talking on a cell phone impairs driving to: A) a much lesser extent. B) a lesser extent. C) about the same extent. D) a greater extent.

Which of the following expressions BEST reflects the capacity of short-term memory? A) 1 or 2 items B) 7, plus or minus 2 items C) about a dozen items D) unlimited

In the words of George Miller, the capacity of short-term memory is the "magical number _____.

" A) 5, plus or minus 2 B) 6, plus or minus 1 C) 7, plus or minus 2 D) 9, plus or minus 2

Tommy is repeating a series of digits in the order in which he heard an experimenter read them. The experimenter is testing the capacity of Tommy's _____ memory. Tommy should be able to repeat about _____ digits correctly. A) short-term; 4 B) short-term; 7 C) sensory; 4 D) sensory; 7

Grouping pieces of information together to expand the capacity of short-term memory is called: A) chunking. B) clumping. C) consolidating.

D) compiling.

"What's your social?" the insurance provider on the phone asks Renee. "One, six, four . . ." Renee begins.

After a brief pause, she continues, "seventy-two . . . sixteen thirty-eight.

" To ease the burden on the insurance associate's short-term memory, Renee is giving the number in ______ rather than as individual digits. A) nuggets B) clumps C) clusters D) chunks

When Roy tells an acquaintance his telephone number, he does not recite the digits one by one at a constant rate, as in "3, 3, 7, 2, 3, 4, 8, 3, 9, 2." Instead, Roy might say, "3, 3, 7 . . .

2, 3, 4 . . . 83, 92." This exemplifies _____, a strategy to enhance _____ memory.

A) consolidation; sensory B) consolidation; short-term C) chunking; sensory D) chunking; short-term

The concept of working memory represents a contemporary conceptualization of _____ memory. A) sensory B) short-term C) long-term D) echoic.

Process is to structure as _____ memory is to _____ memory. A) short-term; working B) short-term; sensory C) working; short-term D) long-term; working

"She did WHAT??" Sebastian's roommate exclaims as he relates an anecdote about a mutual friend. Sebastian's roommate processes the story using _____ memory.

A) working B) sensory C) semantic D) long-term

Working memory is MOST nearly analogous to: A) a Sticky Note on a person's computer screen where he or she constantly jots, updates, and erases temporary notes. B) a Post-It note reminding someone of a future obligation. C) a file on a computer hard drive. D) a portrait hanging in a museum.

On his computer desktop, Rodney can see several different files, each immediately accessible. Since he is actively working on them and can open them whenever he wants, these files are in fact very similar to the kind of information held in _____ memory.

A) long-term B) sensory C) working D) procedural

Match the psychologist(s) with the correct concept or theory. A) Sperling - levels of processing framework B) Tulving and Craik - information processing model C) Baddeley and Hitch - working memory D) Atkinson and Shiffrin - sensory memory

Which component of working memory is correctly matched with its description? A) phonological loop - directs attention B) visuospatial sketchpad - works with visual information C) episodic buffer - works with verbal information D) central executive - integrates information

Angel is considering how best to run several errands between his last class in the afternoon and the beginning of his shift at work 2 hours later. In his mind's eye, he sees a mental map of the town. This map helps Angel factor distances, traffic, and so on into his plans. This map is in his working memory component called the: A) visuospatial sketchpad. B) episodic buffer.

C) phonological loop. D) central executive.

The central executive is a component of _____ memory. A) sensory B) implicit C) long-term D) working

In working memory, visual and verbal information is integrated in the: A) phonological loop.

B) sketchpad. C) central executive. D) episodic buffer.

As Rodolfo works on a complex multiplication problem in his head, the numbers he is manipulating are in his _____ memory, and the multiplication tables he is drawing upon are in his _____ memory. A) working; long-term B) working; sensory C) long-term; working D) sensory; working

Explicit memory is also called _____ memory. A) declarative B) procedural C) semantic D) episodic

Janna is puzzling over a fill-in-the-blank question on a sociology test.

Answering the question correctly requires Janna to use her _____ memory. A) explicit B) implicit C) procedural D) episodic

67.Because she drank too much alcohol, Deanna barely remembers her 21st birthday. That is, her _____ memory is sketchy.

A) procedural B) semantic C) working D) episodic

Which statement accurately captures the relationship among the types of long-term memory? A) Episodic and semantic memory are both components of procedural memory. B) Episodic and semantic memory are both components of explicit memory. C) Explicit and semantic memory are both types of episodic memory. D) Explicit and semantic memory are both types of procedural memory.

Cory knows that the capital of Vermont is Montpelier, which is an example of a(n) _____ memory. A) semantic B) episodic C) explicit D) semantic and explicit

The 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center. Princess Diana's death. The Sandy Hook school massacre. People's vivid memories for the moment in which they learned of these events are called _____ memories. A) snapshot B) flashbulb C) photocopy D) thumbnail

Research has shown that flashbulb memories are often: A) incomplete.

B) inaccurate. C) complete and accurate. D) incomplete and inaccurate.

Flashbulb memories: A) typically concern major, unexpected public or personal events. B) are remarkably accurate, even years after the initial event. C) must be due to special encoding mechanisms for emotionally charged events.

D) are generally less accurate than memories for more mundane events, because of the emotion surrounding the original event.

Declarative memory is to nondeclarative memory as _____ memory is to _____ memory. A) implicit; explicit B) semantic; episodic C) explicit; implicit D) episodic; semantic

The method of loci connects new information to older memories—namely, locations along a familiar route. The method therefore encourages _____ rehearsal. A) massed B) elaborative C) distributive D) effortful

Knowing how to serve a badminton birdie is an example of a(n) ________ memory.

A) episodic B) semantic C) procedural D) explicit

Memories of which a person is not consciously aware are called ______ memories. A) internal B) subliminal C) subconscious D) implicit

Bower et al. (1969) asked some participants to learn hierarchically organized words. Other participants were asked to learn the same words arranged randomly. All participants were later required to recall the words. In this study, the group learning the organized words was the _____ group.

A) control B) independent C) experimental D) dependent

Bower et al. (1969) asked some participants to learn hierarchically organized words. Other participants were asked to learn the same words arranged randomly. All participants were later required to recall the words. Word recall was the _____ variable in this study. A) control B) independent C) experimental D) dependent

Which statement is the BEST reason for viewing classical conditioning as a type of implicit memory? A) Classical conditioning occurs outside one's awareness.

B) Classical conditioning requires conscious awareness. C) Classical conditioning is one mechanism whereby a person learns actions and skills. D) Classical conditioning allows a person to learn from experience.

_____ devices are methods for improving memory. A) Eidetic B) Mnemonic C) Rehearsal D) Elaborative

Mnemonic strategies facilitate retention by encouraging: A) chunking.

B) elaborative rehearsal. C) chunking and elaborative rehearsal. D) chunking and maintenance rehearsal.

An acronym helps recall because it is easier to remember an acronym than a long string of information. Thus, acronyms help circumvent the capacity limitations of _____ memory. A) short-term B) sensory C) implicit D) long-term

According to the textbook, organizing information hierarchically improves memory by aiding the process of: A) retrieval.

B) storage. C) rehearsal. D) encoding.

The conscious repetition of information to ensure its survival in short-term memory is termed _____ rehearsal.

A) primary B) elaborative C) maintenance D) massed

Arturo studies by rewriting and rereading his class notes over and over again; this process is somewhat analogous to ______ rehearsal. A) distributed B) maintenance C) elaborative D) massed

Priti is using the method of loci to learn a list of compliance techniques in her social psychology textbook. Priti is using: A) elaborative rehearsal. B) maintenance rehearsal. C) massed practice.

D) distributed practice.

Which option illustrates an elaborative rehearsal strategy? A) creating visual images based on the information to be remembered B) verbally repeating information over and over to oneself C) transcribing recorded notes verbatim D) replaying a lecture in one's mind

The spacing effect refers to the benefit of _____ practice. A) massed B) maintenance C) distributed D) elaborative

Massed practice refers to: A) repeating information to oneself in order to remember it. B) encoding and storing information using conscious effort.

C) studying for long periods of time without breaks. D) connecting new information to information already in long-term memory.

Based on the _____ effect, _____ practice leads to better learning than _____ practice does. A) spacing; distributed; massed B) spacing; massed; distributed C) distributive; spaced; massed D) distributive; massed;

Spacing study sessions over long periods of time with breaks in between is called: A) elaborative rehearsal. B) massed practice. C) maintenance rehearsal.

D) distributed practice.

Julaine and Trystan are taking a political science midterm. The test covers five chapters. Yesterday, Julaine studied all 5 chapters in an 8-hour marathon session. Trystan studied the material over a 5-day period, for just over 90 minutes each day. All else being equal, which student is likely to perform best on the test, and why? A) Julaine should outperform Trystan, because massed practice is superior to distributed practice.

B) Trystan should outperform Trystan, because distributed practice is superior to massed practice. C) Julaine should outperform Trystan, because distributed practice is superior to massed practice. D) There is no reason to predict that one student will outperform the other.

Mei lives in Shanghai. Sandy lives in Salt Lake City.

Based on the text's discussion, which statement regarding the life memories of the two women is MOST likely to be true? A) Sandy's memories are more likely to be focused on other people than are Mei's. B) Sandy's memories are less likely than Mei's to center on personal emotions. C) Mei's memories are more likely to be focused on other people than are Sandy's. D) Mei's memories are less likely to be focused on historical events than are Sandy's.

How do Chinese participants' life memories differ from those of Americans, and why? A) Chinese participants' memories more often relate to their own actions and emotions because China is a more individualistic culture. B) Chinese participants' memories more often relate to their own actions and emotions because China is a more collectivist culture.

C) Chinese participants' memories more often relate to social and historical events because China is a more individualistic culture. D) Chinese participants' memories more often relate to social and historical events because China is a more collectivist culture.

In one study described in the textbook, participants who experienced a 15-minute period of waking rest showed better retention of newly learned material than did participants who played a game for 15 minutes (Dewar, et al., 2012). In this study, the _____ variable is _____.

A) dependent; participants' activity during the 15-minute interval B) dependent; participants' retention of the material C) experimental; participants' activity during the 15-minute interval D) independent; participants' retention of the material

In one study described in the textbook, Dewar et al. (2012) examined participants' retention of newly-learned material. Some participants experienced a 15-minute period of waking rest after learning the material. Other participants played a game after learning.

What did Dewar et al. find and why? A) The waking-rest participants outperformed the game participants because the rest aided encoding. B) The waking-rest participants outperformed the game participants because the rest prevented interference from newer material. C) The game participants outperformed the waking-rest participants because the game prevented interference from newer material.

D) The game participants outperformed the waking-rest participants because the game encouraged elaborative encoding.

A stimulus that facilitates the recall of information from long-term memory is called a: A) retrieval cue. B) reminder. C) recall cue. D) memory probe.

An "oldie" playing on the radio reminds Donald of events that occurred when the song was current. For Donald, the song is acting as a(n): A) mnemonic. B) eidetic memory. C) flashbulb. D) retrieval cue.

Chad is puzzling over a difficult question on a multiple-choice sociology test. He re-reads the question, scans the options beneath the question, and glances at other questions on the test. Most likely, Chad is looking for: A) mnemonics. B) flashbulb memories. C) retrieval cues. D) procedural memories.

Which statement BEST captures the relationship between priming and a retrieval cue? A) Priming is the unconscious awakening of memories based on retrieval cues. B) Priming is conscious, whereas retrieval cues are unconscious. C) Priming opposes the action of retrieval cues. D) Priming is explicit, whereas retrieval cues are implicit.

The question on the midterm in an economics course is "Discuss several factors that contributed to the economic collapse of late 2008." This question is a _____ test of _____ memory. A) recall; explicit B) recall; implicit C) recognition; explicit D) recognition; implicit

Morton moved from Alabama to Georgia ten years ago. "My fifth-grade teacher made us memorize the names of all the counties in Alabama," he tells his friend Rory.

Rory tests Morton by giving him a list of thirty counties—15 Alabama counties, mixed in with 15 counties from other states. "Ok, pick out the Alabama counties," Rory challenges Morton. Which method does Rory's test use? A) rehearsal B) recognition C) reminiscence D) recall

An essay question is a _____ test of memory. A multiple-choice question is a _____ test.

A) recall; recall B) recall; recognition C) recognition; recall D) recognition; recognition

In a memory experiment, Dr. Aziz gives one group of participants a recognition test of a list of words they had seen earlier; another group is asked to recall the words. What would be a reasonable prediction regarding the relative performance of the two groups on the memory test? A) The two groups should perform equivalently. B) The recall group should outperform the recognition group. C) The recognition group should outperform the recall group. D) No consistent prediction can be made without a consideration of other variables.

People's ability to recall an item from a list depends on where in the list the item occurs. This is known as the _____ effect. A) serial position B) list memory C) regency D) short-term memory

How might one describe the shape of the function relating the probability of an item's recall to the item's position on a list? A) U-shaped B) squiggly C) a linear, negatively sloped line D) an inverted-U shape

A research participant is required to report as much of a poem as he can remember immediately after having read the poem once. The greatest number of recall errors should occur for lines: A) at the beginning of the poem.

B) in the middle of the poem. C) at the end of the poem. D) at the beginning and end of the poem.

The primacy effect refers to the fact that: A) the most important items in a list are more likely to be remembered than less important items.

B) the first-presented items in a list are more likely to be remembered than items in the middle of the list. C) those items in a list which have the greatest emotional impact are those with the greatest likelihood of recall. D) the items presented most recently in a list are more likely to be remembered than items presented earlier.

"Cat food, cola, toothpaste.

" Ned's roommate recites items over the phone as he throws his books in the backseat and gets into his car. Ned is supposed to stop at the store on the way home. The roommate continues to list a few more items. Finally, he wraps up, "Coffee creamer, spaghetti sauce, dish soap, and ice tea mix.

" Ned forgets a couple of things, but he does get the cat food, cola, and toothpaste. His memory for these items reflects the _____ effect. A) item order B) recency C) serial memory D) primacy

One evening, Zoe examines the schedule for her favorite football team. The team plays sixteen games each season.

Later she tries recalling that schedule for a friend who likes the same team. It is highly likely that Zoe will recall opponents at the beginning of the schedule particularly well. What is this phenomenon called? A) the primacy effect B) the depth-of-processing effect C) the recency effect D) eidetic memory

The recency effect refers to the fact that: A) the first several items on a list are more likely to be remembered than the middle items. B) the last items on a list are more likely to be remembered than the middle items. C) rehearsed items are more likely to be remembered than unrehearsed items.

D) the most personally relevant items on a list are most likely to be remembered.

"Dog food, coffee, paper towels." Michelle's roommate begins reciting items into the phone as she gets into her car; Michelle is supposed to stop by the store on the way home. The roommate continues to list a few more items.

Finally, he wraps with, "Coffee creamer, spaghetti sauce, dish soap, and iced tea mix." Michelle forgets a few things, but the spaghetti sauce, dish soap, and iced tea mix are in the bag. Her memory for these items reflects the _____ effect. A) elaboration B) primacy C) chunking D) recency

If Lola begins to list all the classes she's ever taken in college, she will most likely recall her last few classes particularly well. What is this phenomenon called? A) chunking B) the primacy effect C) the recency effect D) context-dependent memory

Before going home, Dr.

Rosen tries to flesh out his patient notes. He can remember the first and last sessions of the day, but his memory of the middle ones is a bit fuzzy. Dr. Rosen is a victim of the _____ effect.

A) short-term memory B) long-term memory C) serial position D) working memory

Godden and Baddeley (1975) conducted the classic "scuba diver" study of the encoding specificity principle. Baddeley is also known for his groundbreaking work on: A) working memory. B) reconstructive memory. C) forgetting.

D) sensory memory.

In Godden and Baddeley's (1975) pioneering "scuba diver" study of the encoding specificity principle, the match between encoding and retrieval contexts is a(n) _____ variable. A) experimental B) independent C) control D) dependent

In the retrieval phase of Godden and Baddeley's (1975) "scuba diver" study of the encoding specificity principle, participants were asked to supply all the words they could remember from the encoding condition. This was a _____ measure of memory.

A) reconstructive B) savings C) recall D) recognition

Glenn has heard students and teachers say that students' test performance is better when students are tested in the same room in which they learned the material. This idea is supported by the results of a pioneering study conducted by: A) Godden and Baddeley (1975). B) Loftus and Palmer (1974). C) Craik and Lockhart (1972). D) Atkinson and Shriffrin (1968).

At University A, students from all introductory psychology sections take their final examination all at once in a gymnasium. At University B, students from each introductory psychology section take the final exam in the same classroom they attended for lectures during the semester. All else being equal, students at University _____ should perform better, based on the _____. A) A; encoding specificity principle B) A; spacing effect C) B; encoding specificity principle D) B; spacing effect

According to the encoding specificity principle: A) material that is processed more deeply is better remembered.

B) the ability to remember an item in a list depends on where the item occurred in the series. C) spreading out study sessions enhances memory for material. D) the similarity between learning and retrieval contexts influences memory.

The similarity between the learning and retrieval contexts influences how well information will be remembered. This is known as the: A) levels-of-processing theory. B) encoding specificity principle.

C) serial position effect. D) spacing effect.

Mood-congruent memory is BEST seen as a specific instance of the: A) depth of processing effect. B) spacing effect.

C) encoding specificity principle. D) serial position effect.

"Have you ever noticed that when people reminisce, they generally remember the good times, not the bad ones?" Sharon remarks. "That's because people are generally in a good mood when they start reminiscing," Portia explains. Portia's mood congruence theory is MOST directly consistent with the: A) encoding specificity principle. B) levels of processing framework.

C) false memory effect. D) spacing effect.

The first person to quantify relearning was the psychologist named: A) Weber. B) Ebbinghaus.

C) von Helmholtz. D) Wundt.

One of Ebbinghaus's key _____ variables was a _____ score. A) dependent; recall B) dependent; savings C) independent; recall D) independent; savings

The first attempts to scientifically study forgetting were made by the psychologist named: A) Ebbinghaus. B) Wundt. C) Weber.

D) Muller.

Which statement BEST describes the forgetting function that Ebbinghaus discovered? A) Material is forgotten at a relatively constant rate once it has been learned. B) Nothing is ever really forgotten. C) Material is forgotten at a relatively slow rate at first, and then the rate of forgetting speeds up. D) Material is forgotten relatively rapidly at first, and then the rate of forgetting slows down.

What material does Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve demonstrate about the way people forget over time ? A) People forget information at a constant rate.

B) At first, people forget very little of what they have learned, but as time passes, the rate of forgetting accelerates. C) Most forgetting happens immediately after people learn material; the rate of forgetting slows down as time goes by. D) People forget information at a variable and unpredictable rate as time passes.

Which statement BEST describes the results of Ebbinghaus's work on forgetting? A) Beginning immediately, a person will slowly forget what he has learned at a relatively constant rate.

B) The person will remember what he learned pretty well for a day or two, but then he'll begin rapidly forgetting the material. C) The person will forget most of it right away, and he'll keep on forgetting more of it, although at a slower rate. D) Forgetting starts out slowly and then speeds up as time passes.

Mickey is about to take his psychology final, for which he has studied very hard.

Just before the exam, the person sitting next to Mickey asks him the name of the physiologist who worked on classical conditioning. Mickey suddenly realizes that he cannot quite remember the name, but he knows that it starts with a P and is two syllables long. Mickey is experiencing: A) hyperthymestic syndrome. B) memory decay. C) retrograde amnesia. D) the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Drew is unable to recall whether Lincoln's head faces left or right on the penny. Which of the following is the BEST explanation for Drew's memory failure?A) The information is difficult to retrieve, because it is stored along with so many other pieces of information in Drew's long-term memory. B) The information was learned so long ago that it is no longer stored in Drew's long- term memory. C) The information was not encoded, because Drew never really paid attention to Lincoln's head on the penny. D) The information was immediately displaced from Drew's working memory after it was encoded.

Jerry is at a party.

He is introduced to three different people in the span of a moment. Later, he is approached by the first person he met and cannot remember her name. Which explanation is MOST likely the source of Jerry's difficulty? A) Jerry failed to encode the woman's name. B) Jerry's working memory capacity was exceeded by the number of people he met. C) Jerry experienced interference in retrieving the woman's name. D) Jerry failed to rehearse the woman's name sufficiently.

Why does a woman have trouble remembering the license plate number of a car that she just saw ten minutes ago? A) Working memory lasts only a minute or so. B) License plate numbers are too difficult to remember easily. C) The number was probably never encoded in the first place. D) The memory, though present, is too difficult to retrieve.

Jerome cannot open his term paper on his computer because the file has become corrupt. Kaci cannot find her term paper on her computer because of all the other documents she has stored on the hard drive. Jerome's failure to retrieve his paper is analogous to the _____ theory of forgetting, whereas Kaci's failure better resembles the _____ theory. A) interference; decay B) encoding failure; interference C) decay; interference D) decay; encoding failure

In ____ interference, information learned earlier disrupts the recall of information learned more recently; in ____ interference, recently learned information disrupts the recall of information learned earlier. A) retroactive; proactive B) proactive; retroactive C) regressive; progressive D) progressive; regressive

Bruce watches a new television program with enthusiasm. He then watches a second, similar program.

Bruce later finds it difficult to remember the details of the first program; he finds that details about the second program keep intruding. What has probably occurred? A) retroactive interference B) decay C) encoding failure D) proactive interference

Nana is taking a Spanish final at the end of the spring semester. The problem is, the French vocabulary she learned the semester before keeps getting in the way, causing her to forget Spanish words. Nana is experiencing _____ interference. A) retroactive B) anterograde C) proactive D) retrograde

Owen has trouble remembering a friend's new phone number; he keeps recalling the old number instead.

Completing a rental application, Pippa finds she can't recall one of her previous addresses, as she's had several addresses since. Owen is experiencing _____ interference. Pippa is experiencing ____ interference. A) retrograde; anterograde B) proactive; retroactive C) anterograde; retrograde D) retroactive; proactive

Which explanation of forgetting is correctly described? A) decay - Information is lost over time as a result of nonuse. B) interference - Information never entered memory to begin with.

C) encoding failure - Forgetting occurs because other information in memory disrupts the retrieval of the information one is trying to remember. D) All of these explanations are correctly described.

The theories of forgetting described in the text may be likened to the difficulties people might face in trying to find an old file on the computer. Which theory is correctly likened to a corresponding file-finding difficulty? A) decay - The desired file was never saved in the first place. B) interference - There are so many files crowding the hard drive that one can't find the desired file.

C) encoding failure - The desired file is so old that it has become corrupted and irretrievable. D) priming - The file was saved in an inaccessible location.

One psychologist associated with the view that memory is reconstructive is: A) George Miller. B) George Sperling. C) Henry Molaison. D) Elizabeth Loftus.

The idea that memory reflects a blend of fact and fiction is called the: A) encoding-specificity principle. B) information-processing model. C) levels of processing framework. D) reconstructionist model.

Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted an experiment in which participants estimated the speed of a car described as either hitting or smashing into another. The _____ variable in this experiment was _____. A) independent; speed estimates B) experimental; the verb describing the cars' motion C) control; the verb describing the cars' motion D) dependent; speed estimates

The misinformation effect highlights the: A) changeability of memory. B) importance of encoding. C) speed of forgetting. D) limitations of short-term memory.

In rich false memory experiments, about _____% of participants remember events that never happened. A) 10 B) 25 C) 50 D) 75

The unconscious process whereby disturbing memories are prevented from entering awareness is called: A) interference. B) repression. C) denial. D) elaboration.

Given its emphasis on the unconscious, the notion that disturbing memories may be repressed is particularly relevant for: A) Ebbinghaus's theory of savings in relearning. B) Loftus' reconstructive model of memory. C) Craik and Tulving's levels of processing framework. D) Baddeley's working memory model.

Approximately ____% of girls and _____% of boys in the U.S. experience childhood sexual abuse. A) 20 to 25; 1 to 5 B) 20 to 25; 10 to 15 C) 30 to 40; 1 to 5 D) 30 to 40; 10 to 15

Chunking information helps to expand the capacity of short-term memory. A) True B) False

With respect to the repressed memory debate, the American Psychological Association released a 1998 statement affirming that: A) memories of abuse are often repressed. B) childhood sexual abuse is fairly uncommon. C) recovered memories of abuse are generally accurate. D) memories are subject to change.

Most people can hold about 10 to 12 items in short-term memory. A) True B) False

After a severe bout of encephalitis, Clive Wearing could no longer develop new memories. Clive suffered from _____ amnesia. A) proactive B) anterograde C) retroactive D) retrograde

When Alicia texts while driving, she doubles her chances of a crash or near-crash. A) True B) False

_____ amnesia involves an inability to form new memories. A) Anterograde B) Retrograde C) Proactive D) Retroactive

Paying attention allows one to move information from sensory memory to short-term memory. A) True B) False

Rhonda can't remember anything about the first several minutes immediately following a car crash in which she was injured. Rhonda is experiencing _____ amnesia. A) proactive B) retrograde C) anterograde D) retroactive

Eidetic imagery is fairly common. A) True B) False

_____ amnesia involves an inability to retrieve old memories. A) Anterograde B) Retrograde C) Proactive D) Retroactive

The term "echoic memory" refers to auditory short-term memory. A) True B) False

Omar experienced a dissociative fugue state. He suddenly snapped out of it in front of a pet-supplies display in a Boise, Idaho discount store; he had no memory whatsoever of his previous life in Greensboro, North Carolina. Omar's amnesia is best described as: A) proactive B) retrograde C) anterograde D) retroactive

Echoic memory lasts longer than iconic memory. A) True B) False

The inability to retrieve past memories is called _____ amnesia. The inability to develop new memories is called _____ amnesia. A) retroactive; anterograde B) anterograde; retrograde C) proactive; retrograde D) retrograde; anterograde

Both iconic and echoic memory are highly accurate. A) True B) False

In _____ amnesia, memory is lost for events preceding an injury or accident; in _____ amnesia, memory is lost for events following an injury or accident. A) anterograde; retrograde B) retrograde; anterograde C) retroactive; proactive D) proactive; retroactive

In George Sperling's procedure, whole report performance exceeded partial report performance. A) True B) False

With respect to amnesia, "antero-" is to "retro-" as _____ is to ______. A) after; before B) before; after C) mild; severe D) severe; mild

Doing practice tests may improve memory for the material. A) True B) False

The term "engram" is generally discouraged by psychologists studying memory. Why might this be? A) The term engram is associated with connectionism, a view of the brain's organization that is now discredited. B) The hippocampus plays a smaller role in memory than psychologists once believed. C) Psychologists believe it is possible to identify the physical brain bases for a particular memory. D) There is probably no single site or process in the brain corresponding to a particular memory.

Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the levels of processing framework of memory. A) True B) False

The organization of long-term memory is MOST nearly analogous to the organization of: A) a dictionary. B) a computer's directory structure. C) an airline's routes. D) the items on a clearance rack.

Martina is reminded of the levels of processing framework when one of her professors tells the class, "You'll probably do better on the test if you put more effort into understanding what the chapter's trying to say in the first place." A) True B) False

Psychologists first learned about the hippocampus's involvement in memory through the detailed study of a single individual with brain damage, namely Henry Molaison (H. M.). The in-depth study of H. M. exemplifies the _____ research method in psychology. A) case study B) survey C) experimental D) observational

Sensory memory has a large capacity. A) True B) False

The amygdala is to the hippocampus as _____ memory is to _____ memory. A) explicit memory; implicit memory B) working memory; emotional memory C) implicit memory; explicit memory D) long-term memory; sensory memory

Short-term memory is the first stage in the information-processing model of memory. A) True B) False

The hippocampus is located in the _____ lobe. A) frontal B) parietal C) temporal D) occipital

Memory competitors are usually smarter than other people. A) True B) False

Which feature of Alzheimer's disease is correctly described? A) neurofibrillary tangles - protein clumps accumulating between neurons B) amyloid plaques - result from twisted protein fibers inside brain cells C) Both of these features are correctly defined. D) Neither of these features is correctly defined.

The hippocampus plays a role in memory consolidation. It is probably MOST accurate to say that the hippocampus is more involved in _____ than in _____. A) encoding; retrieval B) retrieval; encoding C) retrieval; storage D) storage; encoding

Which brain structure is correctly matched with its memory function? A) prefrontal cortex - memory consolidation B) hippocampus - emotional memory C) amygdala - working memory D) cerebellum - procedural memory

A vivid imagination is the secret to a good memory. A) True B) False

When Braden types data into a spreadsheet he will save on his laptop's hard drive, his action is analogous to the memory process of encoding. A) True B) False

The textbook describes the case of Henry Molaison, also known as H. M. After brain surgery, H. M could no longer create long-term memories. H. M. suffered from _____ amnesia. A) retrograde B) proactive C) anterograde D) retroactive

Storage is the first step in the memory process. A) True B) False

The textbook describes the case of Henry Molaison, also known as H. M. After brain surgery, H. M suffered severe memory loss. However, H. M. experienced greater difficulty encoding new memories than in retrieving old ones. H. M.'s _____ amnesia was more profound than his _____ amnesia. A) anterograde; retrograde B) proactive; retroactive C) retrograde; anterograde D) retroactive; proactive

Sensation is one of the three general processes of memory. A) True B) False

The textbook describes the case of Henry Molaison, also known as H. M. After brain surgery, H. M suffered severe anterograde amnesia. This means that H. M. had difficulty: A) retrieving existing long-term memories. B) recalling past life events. C) remembering facts. D) creating new long-term memories.

Suppose someone asks you, "On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being 'all nature' and 10 being 'all nurture,' where would you put dementia?" Based on information provided in the text, the BEST answer probably is: A) "definitely 1." B) "probably a 2 or a 3." C) "a 5, I guess." D) "most certainly a 9 or 10."

The textbook reviews the case of Henry Molaison, also known as H. M. After brain surgery, H. M. suffered hippocampal damage. Which type of memory was BEST preserved in H. M.'s case? A) semantic B) procedural C) episodic D) explicit

One in every _____ people over the age of 65 suffers from Alzheimer's disease. A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 8

The textbook reviews the case of Henry Molaison, also known as H. M. After brain surgery, H. M. suffered hippocampal damage. Which type of memory was MOST damaged in H. M.'s case? A) episodic B) procedural C) implicit D) sensory

Preliminary evidence suggests that levels of physical and mental activity are both _____ correlated with the severity of the cognitive decline seen in Alzheimer's disease. A) perfectly B) positively C) weakly D) negatively

According to the text, H.M.'s explicit memory was severely damaged, but his implicit memory was relatively normal. This means that H.M.'s ______ memory was probably impaired, but his _____ memory was largely intact. A) semantic; episodic B) procedural; episodic C) episodic; procedural D) episodic; semantic

The text describes the case of H. M., whose memory was severely impaired after surgery for epilepsy. Which statement is true? A) H. M. could create new memories. B) H. M.'s implicit memory was less damaged than his explicit memory. C) H.M. could not retrieve new memories. D) H.M.'s explicit memory was less damaged than his implicit memory.

According to the National Institute on Aging (2013), Alzheimer's disease affects as many as _____ million Americans. A) 1 B) 2 C) 5 D) 10

The frontal lobe is to _____ memory as the temporal lobe is to _____ memory. A) spatial; emotional B) spatial; working C) emotional; spatial D) working; spatial

Aplysia is a(n): A) memory deficit. B) sea slug. C) heart condition. D) inability to recognize objects.

Estelle remembers a night she was mugged and brutally beaten. This memory probably involves not only her hippocampus, but also her: A) cerebellum. B) hypothalamus. C) thalamus. D) amygdala.

Long-term potentiation refers to the process whereby: A) the number of synaptic and dendritic connections between neurons increases with experience. B) memories become fixed and stable for the long term. C) neural pathways become activated more efficiently as learning occurs. D) disturbing memories seem to gain in intensity over time.

Some psychologists ascribe infantile amnesia to the immaturity of the _____ among very young children. A) hippocampus B) prefrontal cortex C) amygdala and cerebellum D) hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

The working memory model emphasizes the active processing that occurs in short-term memory. A) True B) False

The components of working memory operate independently. A) True B) False

The phonological loop allows memory of approximately 2 seconds of verbal material without actively repeating it. A) True B) False

In the working memory model, the central executive is part of the episodic buffer. A) True B) False

Semantic and episodic memory are subdivisions of explicit memory. A) True B) False

General knowledge is to personal experience as episodic memory is to semantic memory. A) True B) False

Conditioned responses are one example of implicit memory. A) True B) False

"It's like riding a bike; once you know how, you don't forget." This adage suggests that procedural memories are often explicit. A) True B) False

Mnemonic devices are techniques for improving memory. A) True B) False

Todd is using an acronym when he links technical terms he must remember to landmarks along his route from his home to his workplace. A) True B) False

Explicit memory is to implicit memory as automatic processing is to effortful processing. A) True B) False

Carmen is engaged in elaborative rehearsal when she repeats an address over and over to herself before writing it down. A) True B) False

Deep processing is to shallow processing as elaborative rehearsal is to maintenance rehearsal. A) True B) False

"Cramming" is another name for massed practice. A) True B) False

The benefit of distributed practice is also known as the spacing effect. A) True B) False

One's culture probably has little effect on the nature of one's life memories. A) True B) False

Priming functions as retrieval cues. A) True B) False

When Mya scores 10 out of 10 on a fill-in-the blank geology quiz, she passes a recognition test of memory. A) True B) False

Recognition tests provide fewer retrieval cues than do recall tests. A) True B) False

Recall tests are usually more difficult than are recognition tests. A) True B) False

The primacy and recency effects are components of the serial position effect. A) True B) False

The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember the items at the end of a list. A) True B) False

Maury remembers the first several companies he contacted in his job search, but not the next few; this exemplifies the recency effect. A) True B) False

Tulving and Craik conducted the original "scuba diver" studies of the encoding specificity principle. A) True B) False

In the classic studies of the encoding specificity principle, participants recalled the words better on dry land, whether they had learned the words on land or underwater. A) True B) False

When the room is unused, Mona studies her history notes in the lecture hall in which she attends class. Mona is doing this in order to take advantage of the serial position effect. A) True B) False

The encoding specificity principle is supported by the results of recent neuroimaging studies. A) True B) False

The encoding specificity principle refers to the effect on memory of the match between learning and retrieval contexts. A) True B) False

One's current emotional state has little impact on the types of memories one retrieves. A) True B) False

Ebbinghaus himself was the only participant in his memory studies. A) True B) False

In a study examining the effect of deep processing on relearning, the dependent variable is likely a savings score. A) True B) False

The function relating recall to the interval since original learning is positively sloped. A) True B) False

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon becomes more frequent as one ages. A) True B) False

Decay is to interference as retrieval is to storage. A) True B) False

Proactive interference is to blame when Silvio can retrieve his old phone number but not his current one. A) True B) False

Elizabeth Loftus proposed that memory is reconstructive. A) True B) False

The way that Loftus and Palmer (1974) asked participants about the cars in a filmed accident had little effect on participants' estimates of the vehicles' speeds. A) True B) False

Misleading information can dramatically shape one's memory for events. A) True B) False

Rich false memories include emotion as well as the recollection of events. A) True B) False

The majority of participants in Loftus's "lost in the mall" studies remembered events that never happened. A) True B) False

Anterograde amnesia refers to an inability to develop new memories. A) True B) False

About 35% of girls living in the United States experience childhood sexual abuse. A) True B) False

The American Psychological Association asserted that it is possible to create false memories of events that never happened. A) True B) False

The American Psychological Association endorses the notion that memories of abuse are often repressed. A) True B) False

245.The failure to remember events occurring after an accident or injury is called retrograde amnesia. A) True B) False Ans: B

Destiny is suffering from anterograde amnesia when she fails to remember anything that occurred immediately following a head injury. A) True B) False

With respect to memory, old is to new as anterograde amnesia is to retrograde amnesia. A) True B) False

Scientists have isolated the hippocampus as the site of the engram. A) True B) False

H.M.'s most notable impairment was profound retrograde amnesia. A) True B) False

Malik suffers from cerebellar damage; his episodic memory may be impaired as a result. A) True B) False

The hippocampus is more involved in encoding than in retrieval. A) True B) False

The amygdala plays a role in emotionally charged memories. A) True B) False

Working memory is to implicit memory as prefrontal cortex is to the cerebellum. A) True B) False

Infantile amnesia may reflect cerebellar immaturity. A) True B) False

Generally speaking, learning strengthens the connections among neurons. A) True B) False

More than 10 million Americans suffer from Alzheimer's disease. A) True B) False

Physical exercise yields lasting cognitive benefits for an adult of any age. A) True B) False

Define a) encoding; b) storage; c) retrieval. Draw an analogy between each of these memory processes and an action one might perform when one uses one's computer. Supply an example of each process from your experience studying for your college courses.

Concept Computer Studying Analogy EncodingEntering data or Example Reading a list of Freudian defense mechanisms and associated typing words into a spreadsheetexamples in a or document Storage Saving a file on a computer's hard drive psychology textbook Using the method of loci to transfer a list of Freudian defense mechanisms to long-term Retrieval Finding and Recalling the correct defense mechanism to in a folder titled "PSYC 110" on a computer's hard drive in-the-blank question on a test memory opening a specific file complete a fill

George Sperling conducted experiments in which participants were first exposed briefly to a letter matrix; after a varying interval, an auditory tone cued participants to report the letters contained in a specific row of the matrix. The results indicated that iconic memory accurately codes the spatial location of stimuli and that the information in iconic memory decays after approximately 1 second. Might sensory memory also code other physical stimulus characteristics, such as color or size? Might it code the categorical identity of stimuli, such as whether the stimuli are letters or numbers, upper- or lower-case letters, consonants or vowels, and so on? Does such information decay more rapidly or more slowly from sensory memory than does spatial location information? Describe an original experiment modeled on Sperling's studies that might answer one of these questions. State your hypothesis and identify the pattern of results that might occur.

Sample experiments: Color coding in iconic memory. Iconic memory codes a physical attribute such as color. If this is true, participants should be able to report only those matrix letters presented in a particular color. Participants may be shown a series of matrices, each containing three rows of four letters. A random third of the letters in each matrix may be red; another third, green, and another third, blue. A high-pitched tone might tell participants to report the red letters; a medium- pitched tone, the green ones; and a low-pitched tone, the blue letters. The delay between the matrix and the tone might be varied to determine the length of time that color is stored in iconic memory. Since color is a highly salient attribute for humans, one might hypothesize that not only is color stored in iconic memory, but it may be more resistant to decay than is spatial location. Participants should not only be able to accurately report the letters of a given color, but their accuracy should remain above chance even when the interval between the matrix and the tone exceeds one second. Alternatively, it may be more important evolutionarily to code the location of a stimulus (e.g., a food source) than its color. In this case, people may not be able to report the letters of a given color accurately, particularly at longer delays. Categorical coding in iconic memory. If iconic memory codes the categorical characteristics of stimuli, participants should be able to report only those matrix letters presented in a particular case. Participants may be shown a series of matrices, each containing three rows of four letters. A random half of the letters in each matrix may be presented in upper-case; the others may be presented in lower-case. A high-pitched tone might tell participants to report the capital letters; a low-pitched tone, the lower-case letters. The delay between the matrix and the tone might be varied to determine the length of time that letter type is stored in iconic memory. Iconic memory is not thought to code nonphysical stimulus attributes; thus, people be unable to report the letters of a given case accurately, particularly after longer delays.

How much information can short-term memory hold, and how long can it hold it? Describe one strategy one might use to overcome the capacity limitation of short-term memory. Provide a concrete example of how one might use this strategy when studying course materials.

Short-term memory can hold seven plus or minus two items of information. Items are typically held in short-term memory for only 20-30 seconds. Chunking may help one overcome the capacity limitation of short-term memory. Chunking involves grouping or relating items, creating larger units. For example, grouping or chunking a list of twelve vocabulary words into one or two sentences may be helpful, even if the sentences are somewhat nonsensical. Even applying a simple rhythm to a list of items during rehearsal may serve as a chunking device. Creating a sentence, story, or song from a list of items is an oft-used study technique.

Identify the four components of working memory according to the Baddeley and Hitch model. Briefly explain the function of each component.

Component Function Phonologicalprocesses Loop verbal material for a brief period of time (about 2 seconds) Visuospatial briefly Sketchpad stores and manipulates visual and spatial data Central directs Executive Episodic Buffer attention; makes plans; coordinates processing activity in working memory integrates information from long- term memory, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad

Define and provide original examples for each type of long-term memory: explicit, procedural, episodic, and semantic.

Explicit memory: Memory one is aware of having and that one can express: names, dates, experiences, and facts. Procedural memory: Memory for skills and habits. Episodic memory: Memory for particular events. Semantic memory: Memory for general knowledge and world facts; memory for the rules of logic.

Identify and describe two of the mnemonic devices reviewed in the textbook. Explain how these devices capitalize on chunking and elaborative rehearsal to improve memory.

Anytwo: Device Description and Explanation Method of loci Items are linked to locations along a familiar route. By relating items to information in long-term memory, this Hierarchical organization Acronyms technique exemplifies elaborative rehearsal. Terms or concepts are grouped into meaningful classes and subclasses. By adding meaning, this technique elaborates or develops the material, aiding encoding. The first letter from each item in a list of terms is used to form a short word or phrase. This device capitalizes on chunking by grouping a large of amount of information into a shorter string.

The textbook suggests that to study smarter and improve memory, one should 1) organize information, 2) give oneself time, 3) make connections, and 4) get some rest. Justify this advice making explicit reference to such concepts as elaborative encoding and distributed practice.

Advice Justification 1) OrganizeOrganizing information information into a meaningful system such as a hierarchy encourages making connections, and therefore aids elaborative encoding. It may also help one form chunks or units of material, reducing the overall memory load. 2) Give The spacing yourself time effect shows that distributed practice (spreading study sessions out over time) results in better retention than massed practice, or cramming, which is studying material in a single long block of time. 3) Make connectionsnew 4) Get rest information to information already in long-term memory aids retention. This is known as elaborative rehearsal. Sufficient sleep aids encoding. Dewar et al. (2012) found that a 15- minute period of waking restfulness after learning new material led to better Connecting retention than did a 15-minute period spent playing a game.

Distinguish between the encoding failure, decay, and interference theories of forgetting and provide an example of each.

Encoding failure: This occurs because information may not have been entered into memory in the first place. For example, a man may be unable to recall the name of a medication he saw advertised on television because he was distracted by a chore he worked to complete during the commercial break. Decay: This is the loss of information though nonuse. Memory traces fade away over time. For example, suppose a woman glimpses the name of a medication on a prescription pad. Its representation in iconic memory will decay or fade rapidly unless she pays attention to it and transfers it to short- and then long-term memory. Interference: This happens when information in memory disrupts the retrieval of other information. For example, the name of one's new medication may make it difficult to recall the name of an older medication one used to treat the same condition.

Long-term memories are often inaccurate, even when people are convinced they are correctly remembering past events. Support this statement with reference to the misinformation effect and rich false memories. Cite at least example of empirical research by Loftus and her colleagues. What implications does the malleability of memory have for the controversy surrounding the recovery of repressed memories of abuse?

According to Elizabeth Loftus's reconstructionist model of memory, memories are often a creative blend of fact and fiction. By the misinformation effect, for instance, memories consist of not only a record of the original event, but also new and sometimes misleading information that may be encountered subsequently. In Loftus and Palmer's (1974) classic study, participants remembered automobiles as traveling faster when they were asked about vehicles that had "smashed" into each other than when they were asked about vehicles that "hit" each other. These false memories can become indistinguishable from true memories, incorporating emotion and becoming rich false memories. The malleability of memory suggests that one can never be sure that recovered memories of sexual abuse are accurate. Although the American Psychological Association recognizes that sexual abuse is not rare and that it is possible that memories may be forgotten and then remembered later, it asserts that memory is malleable and subject to misinformation.

Describe anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as well as Alzheimer's disease. Provide a detailed response.

Amnesia: Amnesia refers to memory losses that can result from either physical or psychological conditions. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory for events prior to trauma or injury; it is an inability to retrieve old memories. Anterograde amnesia is the loss of memory for events following trauma or injury; it is an inability to form new memories. Sufferers may have trouble holding jobs or completing daily tasks. One example is Clive Wearing, who suffered amnesia following encephalitis. Alzheimer's disease is a dementing illness characterized by severe memory problems and the fourth leading cause of death among U.S. adults. The disease is progressive, escalating from mild, annoying memory losses to an inability to care for oneself. The disease is at least partly genetic and reflects a disorder in the production of a protein called beta amyloid, which helps maintain neural connections. Clumps and tangles build up, inflaming nerve cells and impairing communication in the brain.

Describe the case of Henry Molaison, also known as H. M. What did H. M.'s case tell psychologists about the role of the hippocampus in memory? Identify the role of two of these structures in memory: a) cerebellum; b) amygdala; c) prefrontal cortex.

Henry Molaison, or H. M., suffered from severe epilepsy. As a last resort, surgery was performed on H. M.'s brain to cure his epilepsy. His hippocampus was destroyed during the operation, causing H.M. to suffer severe amnesia. His anterograde amnesia was more profound than the retrograde amnesia. Following the surgery, H. M. could no longer learn anything new; while his memory for the recent past was impaired, he could retrieve a few memories from the more distant past. In contrast to the impairments seen in his explicit memory, H. M.'s implicit memory was preserved. These results suggest that the hippocampus is most involved in encoding and storing explicit memories. Functions of two areas should be described: Area cerebellum amygdala prefrontal cortex Function implicit memory emotional memory working memory

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