Euh Essay Exam

EUH 1000 Essay Exam 1 1.

Trace the development of law from the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi to the Romans. Include in your discussion the Judaic concept of law and hot it differed from Both Babylon and Rome. Throughout history laws have been in place to restore or keep order in society. Some laws are put into place to protect while some laws are made to punish.

No matter the purpose, laws are put in place with the expectation they will be followed. The Code of Hammurabi was commissioned by the Babylonian king Hammurabi.The prologue to his law states, “I established law and justice in the language of the land and promoted the welfare of the people. ” (Salisbury and Sherman 13). These set of laws were established to regulate everything in daily life from building codes, to physician’s fees.

These were the first set of laws that came with harsh punishments if broken. The penalties, however, differed depending on the social order of the law breaker. Retribution for broken laws was literally an eye for an eye.Following Hammurabi’s code was the Code of Neslim by an unknown Hittites author. The codes were broken into two separate sections, beginning with the first few words of text, “If a man” and “If a vine” (Tanka). Like the code of Hammurabi, these rules were established to govern everyday life.

But unlike the code of Hammurabi, there were not harsh punishments for the breaking of these laws. Differing from any laws of the time were the Judaic laws. Their laws were said to be authored by a higher power. Collectively these laws are known as the Ten Commandments.These laws not only governed how the Jewish people should live and worship, but also set them apart from their neighbors with the law such as circumcision.

The punishment for breaking these laws would result in harsh punishment not from man but by God. The Roman law still is fundamental today in European law and laws of the United States. These laws were created to be fair to all men no matter their social class or status. Laws were passed through voting assemblies, whose decisions were legal and binding.

If laws were found to be unfair or unnecessary, they could be voted down and replaced.Laws made by Emperors were termed constitutiones, singular, constitutio (Boatwritght, Gargola, & Talbert 418). As longs as we’ve had people and laws you will have people who will try and circumvent the laws some will escape punishment other will not. Some people will learn their lessons while some will not. Some people can live their entire lives following the rules of the land.

However, a land without laws would be a land of chaos. 2. What were the contributions made by Octavian Augustus to the Empire? Why is his reign considered the true beginning of the Pax Romana?Octavian Augustus’ reign is considered to be the beginning of the Pax Romana because of all the contributions he made to the Empire. The Romans generally spent most of their time at war, either with each other or other territories, to acquire power, wealth and prestige.

First, Octavian had to convince the Romans all of these things could be acquired without going to war. Once peace was acquired, the young general spoke to the Senate advising them that he was now returning rule back to the Senate and the people. This form of government was called the principate.Out of gratitude, the Senate bestowed upon him the name “Augustus” in 27 B.

C. E. (Salisbury & Sherman 137). Establishing peace was not an easy task. Octavian Augustus had to eliminate his adversaries. These included his co-emperors Lepidus, ruler of the North, and Marc Antony, ruler of the East.

This left Augustus as the sole leader of the Roman world and in fact, the most powerful man that had ever lived. He first took on the task of reshaping Rome to be governed by one. He used his power to legally remove and appoint senators as necessary.He used leaders appointed by him, and not governors, to control surrounding provinces.

Augustus was able to handle the Senate and respect traditional forms of government for over 40 years. By the year of his death in 14 A. D. the old ways had long been abolished (Harris, 38). The once dingy, unattractive city of Rome was also transformed during Augustus’ reign.

The new look of Rome featured buildings with polished marble. One of the most splendid was the new Forum. The new Forum had at its center a temple of Mars the Avenger, god of war. Located around the Forum were other statues of great Roman heroes.

He also erected many theaters and other great buildings. A master of political propaganda, Augustus did not pass up the chance to take credit for these enormous building projects. He also urged his wealthy supporters to patronize writers and artist. In turn many of these artists produced great works depicting Augustus. These works would have a lasting and profound impact on the literary society.

Augustus’ successors were as interested in peace and economic stability as he. For this reason they continued to follow in his footsteps. From 96 to 180 A. D.

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius ruled Rome bringing prosperity and keeping the peace (Nardo, 37). Their rule was so great that they would later be known as the “five good emperors”. 3. Discuss the importance and influence of Constantine on the spread of Christianity.

Constantine had a significant impact on the spread of Christianity because he was the first emperor to tolerate the new religion. After a dream where he received a vision of a cross with the writing, in hoc signo vinces: “In this sign, conquer”, he begin to fight under the Christian symbol.After a decisive victory, alongside his co-emperor Licinius, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan which proclaimed toleration and restoration of confiscated Christian property (Salisbury & Sherman 161). The Edict of Milan did not make Christianity the official religion of the land, but it did affirm tolerance and put all of the religions of the land on an even level.

It is believed Licinius later began to prosecute Christians because the faith was politically identified with Constantine. In 324 A. D. the two went to war with Constantine winning and becoming the unifier of the Roman world (Harris 56).With the emperor embracing the new religion, the empire saw an increase in social cohesion.

Constantine was responsible for building great Christian monuments. The first was the basilica of the Lateran, built on grounds previously occupied with barracks by the army of Maxentius. He went on to build other great basilicas outside the walls of the city. In 1487, a grand statue of Constantine was found in the western apse of the Basilica of Maxentius (Gabucci 50).

Before his death, Constantine began his greatest work, the building of St. Peter’s.A project so enormous it was not completed until after his death. Although Christians were not persecuting their rivals, by the end of Constantine’s reign, Christianity was effectively the state religion.

Of Constantine’s greatest material works, he left behind a new capital called Constantinople, “the city of Constantine”, which begin in 326 and dedicated in 330 (Harris 56). With its prime location, and the ability to keep out enemies from the land and the sea, Constantinople would be a Christian imperial city for the next eleven years.After Constantine’s death his sons Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans were all humble and committed to the Christian life. Other emperors followed the Christian faith and by 395 all pagan sacrifices and cults were abolished and Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire (Salisbury & Sherman 163). 4. Compare and contrast the emperorships of Justinian and Charlemagne.

How did they rule in a similar manner? How were they different? Emperors Justinian and Charlemagne had similarities and differences in the way they ruled.Justinian was born in poverty, but through his uncle would be crowned as emperor. He would reign with great energy. Charlemagne was of German decent; he would come to be known as an enlightened emperor and had a thirst for knowledge and intellect.

During this period war, was a necessary way of life; however, the two emperors took different approaches to the act. Through war, Justinian successfully recovered large stretches of land which had been previously lost. He never took part in the actual fighting itself. He felt it was his duty to revive the old Empire to its once great state.On the other hand, Charlemagne was fully engaged in battle; often times leading his troops being on the front line. Charlemagne loved the administrative aspect of war more than war itself.

Both emperors were of the Christian faith and regulated both religion and law within their kingdoms. Both believed in converting non-believers by force. Justinian destroyed pagan worship centers. In 529, Justinian dealt a deathblow to paganism by closing down the schools of higher learning in Athens where Pagan ideas flourished (Barker, 99).Charlemagne believed that forcibly converting the Saxons would be the only way to make them permanent fixtures in his kingdom.

After a decisive battle in 785 against the Saxons, Charlemagne converted the people to Christianity (Salisbury and Sherman 218). Clarification of previously recorded text was taken on by Justinian and Charlemagne. Early in 528, Justinian employed lawyer Triobonian for the task of updating usable Roman laws. The Justinian Code was issued on April 7th of the next year (Nardo 94-95).

Charlemagne enlisted numerous scholars to prepare one version of previously handwritten works.Together these scholars developed a correct rendition of the texts and developed a standardized style of handwriting. Justinian’s dream of refurbishing the empire’s old homeland would die along with him. He would be the last of the Latin speaking emperors.

Charlemagne will be remembered for his great love for education and his contributions to handwriting. 5. Trace the development of Henry II’s reforms in England, including his dealings with the Church, and his legal reforms. Due to the threat of civil war during the reign of King Stephen (1135-54), reform was needed to bring order to England and the church.

This reform was to come in the form of Henry II, who ruled England from 1154-1189 (Hudson). Due to marriage between Henry and Eleanor of Aquitaine a great French heiress, large parts of France came under England’s control (Salisbury & Sherman 258). At the peak of his power, Henry II controlled much of France, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. Henry’s reforms brought change to the military and the legal system. Henry improved the military in two different ways.

First, any English baron who did not want to go to war would pay a tax in lieu of service.This money was then used to hire foreign soldiers who would fight in their place. Second all other freemen were required to provide weaponry and armor according to his means. These changes built a stronger army and took the power from the barons (Harding). Henry’s greatest reform came in the way of his revision of the legal system. Prior to reform, a person’s guilt or innocence was based on happenstance and superstition.

None of the trials used facts to gage a person’s merit. Henry introduced the trial by jury. This new form of trial used testimony and evidence to decide a case. In and disputes, Henry gave the land owner the option of looking to a source higher than the lord, allowing them to go to the king. To ensure laws were being kept, traveling justices would investigate and punish those who had committed crimes. The tensions between church and state came to a head with King Henry II and his former best friend Thomas Becket, now Archbishop of Canterbury.

King Henry II wanted to bring his reform to the church. Becket felt the church should be exempt from the King’s authority. Becket later fled to France where for seven years he appealed to the Pope and the King of France for help against King Henry II.Once reconciliation was reached, Becket returned to England.

However, he was still vengeful and began to punish and excommunicate anyone who he felt had sided against him. Angered by these excommunications the England loyal knights surprised Becket and slew him with their swords. This action caused Becket to be seen as a martyr. Instead of furthering Henry’s cause, he was left with no choice but to compromise and allow the church to remain separate. During his reign, he restored order to the government and introduced reform.

Dying in despair and deserted by all of his legitimate heirs, the changes he brought to England had a lasting effect on English law to this day. Works Cited Barker, John W. Justinian and the Later Roman Empire. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 1977.

Print. Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro, Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard John Alexander Talbert. The Romans: from Village to Empire. New York: Oxford UP, 2004.

Print. Gabucci, Ada. Rome. Berkeley: University of California, 2006. Print.

Harding, Samuel B. "The Baldwin Project: The Story of England by Samuel B. Harding. " The Baldwin Online Children's Literature Project.

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Harris, Nathaniel. History of Ancient Rome. London: Hamlyn, 2000. Print. Hudson, John.

"BBC - History - British History in Depth: Common Law - Henry II and the Birth of a State. " BBC - Homepage. N. p. , 05 Nov.

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