TEST FORMAT: Exam #1 will be worth 100 points and consist of short answer/definition, listing and descriptions. SAMPLE QUESTIONS: 1.
According to Theories of Verbal Coding, list & define the three ways in which the study of signs and/or verbal coding can be approached (6 pts). 1. semantics: how signs relate to things ? meaning 2. Pragmatics: how signs effect human behavior 3. Syntactic: signs relating to other signs 2.
List the concepts of the Scientific Method (4 pts). 1. statement of problem (tentative hypothesis) 2. Observation 3. Classification 4. Generalization 3.
According to the text, define the following: (2 pts. each) o Encoding- formulation and transmission of the message o Context – the situation which the comm. takes place o Chronemics – how time affects communication. Some cultures are very time conscious and punctual; others are more flexible. owl or lark) REVIEW MATERIAL Define the following terms as they apply to human communication : theory --- a body of statements that present a clear, rounded, and systematic view of a subject.
attitude --- an accumulation of information. Change occurs because of new info or change of value (a predisposition to behave in a positive or negative way toward an object) noise --- anything that interferes with the comm. Process Non-identity --- A is not A. he map is not the territory it represents artifacts --- objects that communicate, clothing, glasses, jewelry, cars, art objects, indexing --- recognizing that student #1 is not student #2 (we are all diff) entropy --- chaos, randomness, turbulence, the degree of uncertainty inartistic proofs --- not speaker controlled abstraction --- the process of leaving out details in perceiving, thinking about and labeling objects and events multi-ordinal --- a word can mean a umber of things to different people cognitive dissonance --- two cognitive elements (attitude and behavior can be irrelevant/consonant/dissonant) and dissonance- a relationship in which one element would not be expected to follow from the other. NOT a matter of logical relationship but of psychological consistency cybernetics --- control and self-regulation via communication w/an emphasis on feedback mystification --- physical and experiential separation of individuals creates mystery in various ways (a phenomenon in which average ppl bond w/note figures) Non-allness --- the map never represents all of the territory.No statement says all there is about an event Proxemics --- (space) the study of how ppl unconsciously structure microspace, the distance between ppl, objects, houses, etc.
(the process of how space affects the comm. Process) Channel --- means through which message is transmitted and received Haptics --- touch, an important element in interpersonal communication information --- reduces uncertainty (involves data, process, channel, outcomes/uses paralanguage --- (vocalics) the study of how elements of the voice such as rate, pitch, volume, tone, etc. re used to communicate sarcasm, ulterior messages, etc. peripheral routing --- occurs when non-elaboration, or non-critical thinking, occurs and the listener is influenced by element extraneous to the argument itself Kinesics --- the study of how body language (facial expression, posture, gestures) affects the communication process self-reflexiveness --- we abstract from abstractions –infinitely. The reporter can report on the report of the fire.We are still interpreting translations of translations of Aristotle and Plato uncertainty reduction --- ppl seek info to reduce uncertainty; they may also create uncertainty by the info they transmit taxonomy --- motivated sequence (attention-need-satisfaction-visualization-action) (a list of related topics) Distinguish between the types of data in theory construction.
--- nominal: listing; ordinal: rank ordering; interval: statistically weighted Be familiar with Aristotle’s Classical Rhetorical Theory and its concepts. -- rhetoric- the art or faculty of discovering, in any given case the available means of persuasion; state your case and prove it … Inartistic proofs- not speaker controlled; artistic proofs- speaker controlled(ethos-creates trustworthiness w/the audience, pathos-appeals to emotions, logos- logic/evidence the author provides); inductive and deductive reasoning Define a system; be able to list and characterize all of its parts. -- set of parts or objects that are structure and interrelated, forming a unique whole in an environment and it’s set apart by a boundary (usually open than closed) •Wholeness- the whole is greater than sum of individual parts •Inter-dependence- each part affects other parts; effects are rippling •Equilibrium- how systems adapt/adjust to achieve homeostasis/balance •Equifinality- goal-seeking behavior of a system Hierarchy- lines of power/control as in subordinate/superior relationships •Change/adaptability- when systems adjust in order to survive; influenced by feedback •Exchange w/environment- the idea of the system transforming input to output Know the elements in the Communication process. -- the process by which senders and receiver exchange messages in a given context …source- where it came from /encoding- the formulation and transmission of the message, receiver- person that assigns meaning to the message /decoding- meaning of the message is created in the mind of the receiver, channel- means through which message is transmitted, message (verbal/nonverbal), feedback- response by the receiver to the message, noise- anything that interferes with the comm. process, context; linear, interactive, transactional (on-going/irreversible)- the situation which the comm.
Takes place Diagram and explain the concepts of Ogden-Richard’s Triangle of Meaning. --- tried to discover the ways in which symbol s help or hinder us in reflecting on things; there is indirectness of the relations of words and things – words mean nothing in themselves. Only when a thinker makes us of them do they mean anything 3 elements (thought, object/referent, symbol) interrelate to establish meaning Diagram and explain the concepts of Osgood’s Semantic Space model. -- sought to define (measure) the behaviors in the person elicited by sign stimuli; overt behavior is mediated by internal responses (meanings); meaning – learned internal responses to stimuli (signs) which are associated with other stimuli (referents). Meaning measurement tool, description for the nature of connotative meaning Distinguish between the perspectives in theory construction.
--- laws perspective: all a’s are b’s under conditions 1, 2, 3…; systems perspective: a->b->c->d->e, etc; rules perspective: a does b in order to bring about c Know the parts and characteristics of Burke’s Dramatistic Pentad. -- •Act – considered the metaphorical center of the pentad, around which all other aspects of the pentad circulate, embedded in the scene are actions performed by the agents, names what took place •Agent – who of the situation, what person or kind of person performed the act •Scene – the when and where of the situation, background of act •Agency – means of communication, channel used by the agents •Purpose – why of the situation or the motive of the act Know the parts of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence. -- attention-need-satisfaction-visualization-action Know the levels of a system (open and closed). ---open- exchange w/environment (cell/plants/animals/humans); closed- no exchange w/environment (universe/clock/watch) Closed 1. static structure (universe) 2.
Simple Dynamic (clock) 3. Cybernetic control (thermostat) Open 4. self maintenance (the cell) 5. Biological (plants) 6.
Biological (animals) 7. Human (individual) 8. Social (human organization) 9. Transcendental (Metaphysical)Be familiar with Theories of Meaning. --- theory of the image (frame or reference) or view of the world is the net effect of an individual’s experience; dynamic and in flux; meaning comes from the interaction between person and environment; part shared; part private.
Thought/symbol/referent- elements that interrelate to establish meaning What are the five general types of nonverbal behaviors that are based on origin, coding, and usage (Ekman & Friesen – Functional Theories of Nonverbal Coding)? -- 1. Emblems (verbal translation) 2. Illustrators (accent or emphasize) 3. Adaptors (facilitate release of bodily tension) 4.
Regulators (used to coordinate interaction) 5. Affect displays (display of emotions or feelings) “All A’s are B’s under conditions 1, 2, 3, . . . etc. ” – best describes the LAWS perspective in theory construction.
According to Katz, what four functions do attitudes serve? --- •Adaptive- our attitudes help us adapt to our world Knowledge-economy – the smarter we are the more choices we have as we manage our lives •Expression of self-image – we have attitudes about the way we look to ourselves and others •Ego-defensive – have attitudes about how to protect ourselves Be able to define each: beliefs, values, and attitudes. ---beliefs- our perceptions; values- important beliefs; attitudes- predisposition that can be negative or positive towards an object Guilt creates division and results from what principles? the principle of the negative –moralize- (focus on inadequacies and failures); the principle of perfection – unattainable goals- (serves as motive, driving entities forward, the completeness of perfection); the principle of hierarchy – social pyramids - (principle inevitable, no particular hierarchy is inevitable, serve as a motivator, as individuals struggle to rise or maintain position in socio-cultural hierarchies) Distinguish between central and peripheral routing (Petty & Caccioppo). -- central- (critical thinking) occurs when receiver consciously and thoughtfully processes the info, weighing arguments and evidence against what is already known. Attitude change is lasting and creates behavioral change. Peripheral- (non-critical thinking) non-elaboration occurs and the listener is influenced by elements extraneous to the argument itself.
Attitude change is temporary Know the types of Necessity in theory building. -- nomic- casual relationships; logical- consistant systems of relationships; practical- amount of force to act What is the idea behind McGuire’s Inoculation Theory? ---[cultural truism-brush your teeth-no defense exists] in supportive inoculation, individuals receive pretreatment that supports truism. Refutational inoculation involves first an attack of the truism followed by a refutation. Combo of both motivates to develop own arguments.
A truism under general threat from viable arguments motivates individual to develop defenses (passive or active) threat followed by an information sequence is more effective than the reverse. Forewarning is a forearming of an audience against a persuasive message Know the parts of Information Theory (Shannon & Weaver). •Information – reduces uncertainty (involves data, process, channel, outcome/uses) •Entropy – chaos, randomness, turbulence, degree of uncertainty •Piece – unit of info Bit – unit of info that reduces alternatives by half; a decision between two alternatives (binary decision) •Turbulence – degree of stability/instability in the environment; affects entropy •Information load – quantity of info combined w/relative difficulty in transmission; burnout may result from underload or overload •Uncertainty reduction – ppl seek info to reduce uncertainty; they may also create uncertainty by info they transmit •Social cognition theory reduces uncertainty by increasing one’s knowledge of social situation Know Social Judgment Theory. -- [Sherif] ppl were tested in their ability to judge physical stimuli. Individual judgments of things and ppl are highly situational and depend on one’s initial orientation toward the world. Ppl have latitude in attitude: acceptance, rejection, non-commitment.
Messages failing in the latitude of acceptance will facilitate change; in the latitude of rejection results in reduced or no change; boomerang occurs. The greater the discrepancy, the greater the degree of change unless the message falls in rejection zone.The greater the ego-involvement (how important issue is) the greater the latitude of rejection and the smaller the latitude of non-commitment What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? --- unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning is not designed to produce mathematical certainty From Theories of Verbal Coding, state 5 generalizations about signs. --- 1.
A sign is a stimulus that has meaning for ppl 2. Messages are signs and groups of signs shaped through human thought processes 3.Signs represent objects, events, conditions other than themselves 4. Signs are used to elicit and formulate behavior 5. Signs have relationship w/other signs Define Ellul’s four kinds of Propaganda. •Political- employed by government or political party to bring about change in actions of public •Sociological- purpose is to integrate individuals •Agitation- subversive, self-seeking •Integration- stabilize, unify What are the three stages of “self” as defined by Mead’s Symbolic Interaction theory? -- preparatory stage, play stage, game stage Distinguish between influenceability (McGuire) – individual differences exist in terms of being influenced across situations; situational-weighting: type of influence affects how much difference is found (suggestion- simple messages, conformity- group pressure, persuasion- complex argument) and persuasibility – matter of internal processes; individuals vary in abilities/levels of motivation to process messages (attention- ability to pay attention to speaker/message, comprehension- involves understanding the message, anticipation- see yourself in position advocated by speaker, evaluation- criticizing what speaker is saying, in own mind).
High abilities to attend/comprehend/anticipate promotes it (condition not trait) Distinguish between the two broad definitions of Propaganda (Doob & Ellul). --- Doob- attempt to affect the personalities and to control the behavior of individuals toward ends considered unscientific or of doubtful value in a society at a particular time; distinguishes between education and propaganda. Ellul- universal phenomenon, necessary and essential, must appeal to human massness and individuality, observes that propaganda could not exist without the mass media.Explain how at least 3 types of environmental factors affect nonverbal communication. --- color, comfort- if you’re not comfortable with person or in general they will be able to tell, temperature- too hot or too cold affect what you do for non-verbal comm, amount of space- too far away wont be able to see what you are doing State the Sapir-Whorf linguistic relativity principles and give two examples. --- the language habits of our world predispose our thinking and certain choices of interpretation [hopi Indians- present tense verbs only; sexism in language- a probable effect] hopi- view of time, Japanese- forms of greeting http://cueflash.
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