Week 5 Chapter 9 (5)

"As vocabulary and pronunciation improve" (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Children as young as age 2 fill in for words they have not yet learned by coining new words based on ones they know—for example, "plant-man" for a gardener, or "crayoner" for a child using crayons. These early expressions reveal a remarkable, rule- governed approach to" (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.

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"Preschoolers also extend language meanings through metaphor—like the 3-year-old who described a stomachache as a "fire engine in my tummy" (Winner, 1988). Young pre- schoolers' metaphors involve concrete, sensory comparisons: "Clouds are pillows," "Leaves are" (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"As their vocabulary and knowledge of the world expand, children appreciate nonsensory comparisons: "Friends are like" (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E..

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"During the elementary school years, vocabulary increases fourfold, eventually exceeding comprehension of" (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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". On average, children learn about _____ words each day, a rate of growth greater than in early childhood " (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E..

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Children learn more words later than in

" In addition to fast-mapping, older school-age children, especially those with excellent reading comprehension, enlarge their vocabularies by analyzing the structure of complex words.

From happy and decide, they can derive the meanings of " (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file. The citation provided is a guideline.

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"But because written language contains a far more diverse and complex vocabulary than " (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file.

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"But because written language contains a far more diverse and complex vocabulary than "spoken language "eading contributes enor- mously to " (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"hildren who engage in as little as 21 minutes of independent reading per day are exposed to nearly " (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E..

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"As their knowledge expands and becomes better organized (see Chapter 7), older school-age children think about and use words more precisely: In addition to the verb fall, for example, they also use topple, tumble, and plummet (Berman, 2007).

Word definitions also illustrate this change. Five- and 6-year-olds offer concrete descriptions referring to functions or appearance—knife: "when you're cutting carrots"; bicycle: "it's got wheels, a chain, and handlebars." By the end of elementary school, synonyms and explanations of categorical relationships appear—knife: "Something you could cut with. A saw is like a knife. It could also be a " (Berk 380) Berk, Laura E..

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"chool-age children's more reflective and analytical approach to language permits them to appreciate the multiple meanings of words—to recognize, for example, that many words, such as cool or neat, have psychological as well as physical meanings: "What a cool shirt!" or "That movie was really neat!" This grasp of double meanings permits 8- to 10-year-olds to comprehend subtle" (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file.

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"As they transition t____, young people add a variety of abstract words—coun- terintuitive, revolutionized, philosophy—to their vocabularies. They also master sarcasm and irony and appreciate the difference between the two—that sarcasm is a critical comment directed at a specific target, whereas irony expresses unmet expectations that are not the fault of anyone in particular " (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.

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"As they transition to adolescence, young people add a variety of abstract words—coun- terintuitive, revolutionized, philosophy—to their vocabularies. They also master sarcasm and irony and appreciate the difference between the two—that sarcasm is a critical comment directed at a specific target, whereas ____ expresses unmet expectations that are not the fault of anyone in particular "

"imilarly, grasp of figurative language improves greatly in adolescence. _________— especially those that express subtle attitudes—are especially challenging. They can be used to comment ("Blood is thicker than water"), interpret ("His bark is worse than his bite")," (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.

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"Research shows that adult feedback facilitates semantic development. When adults go beyond correcting and explain ("That's not a car. It's a truck.

See, it has a place to put things in"), toddlers are more likely to move toward " (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file. The citation provided is a guideline.

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"Young children's fast-mapping is supported by a special part of short-term memory, a ___________ that permits us to retain speech-based infor- mation. " (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"he faster preschoolers can recall a just-presented sequence of nonsense words (a measure of phonological memory skill), the larger their " (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E..

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"This suggests that a child with good phonological memory has a better chance of transferring new words to long-term memory and linking them with relevant " (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Early in development, phonological memory is linked to advanced" (Berk 381) Berk, Laura E.

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"Young children figure out the meanings of words by contrasting them with words they already know and assigning the new label to a gap in their" (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"When learning a new noun, toddlers and preschoolers acquiring diverse languages tend to assume it refers to an object category at the basic level—an intermediate level of " (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.

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"How do children discover which concept each word picks out? This process is not yet fully understood. One speculation is that early in vocabulary growth, children adopt a __________s—the assumption that words refer to entirely separate (nonoverlap- ping) categories " (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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___ s"eem to rely on mutual exclusivity when the objects named are perceptually distinct—for example, differ clearly in shape. " (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Once toddlers have acquired about 75 words, a _________ is clearly evident: Previous learning of nouns based on shape heightens attention to the shape properties of additional objects. In research in which toddlers repeatedly played with and heard names for novel objects of different shapes ("That's a wif") over a nine-week period, they soon formed the generalization that only similarly shaped objects have the same name" (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.

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"oddlers with this training added more than three times as many object names to their vocabularies outside the laboratory as did untrained controls" (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"According to one proposal, preschoolers discover many word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax, or the structure of sentences—a hypothesis called " (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E..

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"Consider an adult who says, "This is a citron one," while showing a child a yellow car. Two- and 3-year-olds conclude that a new word used as an adjective for a familiar object (car) refers to a property of that object (Hall & Graham, 1999; Imai & Haryu, 2004). As preschoolers hear the word in various sentence structures ("That lemon is bright citron"), they use __________ to refine the word's meaning and generalize it to other categories." (Berk 382) Berk, Laura E.

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"In one study, an adult performed an action on an object and then used a new label while looking back" "nd forth between the child and the object, as if to invite the child to play. Two-year-olds concluded that the label referred to the" (Berk 383) Berk, Laura E.

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"Children acquire vocabulary so efficiently and accurately that some theorists believe that they are innately biased to induce word mean- ings using certain principles, such as mutual exclusivity and syntactic bootstrapping (Lidz, Gleitman, & Gleitman, 2004; Woodward & Markman, 1998). But critics observe that a small set of built-in, fixed principles is not sufficient to account for the varied, flexible manner in which children " (Berk 383) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"n alternative perspective is that vocabulary growth is governed by the same cognitive strategies that children apply to nonlinguistic stimuli. A recent account, called the emergentist _______, proposes that word-learning strategies emerge out of children's efforts to deci- "pher language.

Children draw on a coalition of cues—perceptual, social, and linguistic—that shift in importance with age"

"Emergentist coalition model of word-learning strategies. Children draw on a coalition of cues—perceptual, social, and linguistic—to infer word meanings. With age, these cues shift in importance. Infants rely solely on perceptual cues. While remaining sensitive to perceptual features, toddlers increasingly attend to social cues.

As language develops further, preschoolers add" (Berk 383) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"These two-word utterances are called______because, like a telegram, they focus on high-content words and omit smaller, less important ones," (Berk 384) Berk, Laura E.

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" Are they applying a consistent grammar? According to one view, a more complete, and perhaps adult- like, grammar lies behind these" (Berk 384) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Consistent with this idea, children seem more knowledgeable about grammar in comprehension than in " (Berk 384) Berk, Laura E.

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"This suggests that 2-year-olds have some awareness of" (Berk 385) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file.

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"Additional findings confirm that toddlers do not yet have a consistent, flexible grammar. Rather, their two-word sentences are largely made up of simple formulas, such as "more + X" and "eat + X," with many different words inserted in the " (Berk 385) Berk, Laura E..

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"Only gradually do preschoolers refine and gen- eralize their early grammatical forms. In a number of investigations, English-learning children were tested for their ability to produce novel sentences that conformed to basic English syntax. They had to use a new verb in the subject-verb-object form after hearing it in a different construction, such as passive ("Ernie is getting gorped by the dog"). The percentage of children who performed well (when asked what the dog was doing, they responded, "He's gorping Ernie") rose steadily with" (Berk 386) Berk, Laura E.

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" Once children form three-word sen- tences, they add" —small markers that change the meaning of sentences, as in "John's dog" and "he is eating."" (Berk 386) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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" Adding -s to a word requires only one semantic distinction—the difference between one and more than one. In contrast, using ___involves many more, including an understanding of person, number, and time of occurrence (" (Berk 386) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Look again at Table 9.

4, and you will see that some morphemes with irregular forms are acquired before those with regular forms. For example, children use past-tense irregular verbs, such as ran and broke, before they acquire the regular -ed ending. But once children apply a regular morphological rule, they extend it to words that are exceptions, a type of error called " (Berk 386) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Look again at Table 9.

4, and you will see that some morphemes with irregular forms are acquired before those with regular forms. For example, children use past-tense irregular verbs, such as ran and broke, before they acquire the regular -ed ending. But once children apply a regular morphological rule, they extend it to words that are exceptions, a type of error called ""Why do children show this inconsistent pattern? Because they hear frequently used irregular forms often in adult speech, they probably learn those by" (Berk 387) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"At times, how- ever, preschoolers do _____ frequently used exceptions, as when they say "ated," "felled," or "feets.

"" (Berk 387) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file. The citation provided is a guideline.

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"Once children master the auxiliary verb _____, the door is open to a variety of new expressions. Nega- tives and questions are examples." (Berk 387) Berk, Laura E.

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"Three types of negation appear in the following order in 21?2- to 3-year-olds learning lan- guages as different as Cantonese, English, and Tamil (spoken in India):" (Berk 387) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"Preschoolers' question asking remains variable for a couple of years.

A common error is to omit the auxiliary verb ("What he doing?"). Another is to fail to invert the subject and auxiliary verb when asking certain ques- tions ("What she will do?" "Why he can go?")" (Berk 387) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Among English-, Korean-, and Tamil-speaking preschoolers, correct question form appears first for yes/no and later for " (Berk 388) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"As with other grammatical forms, first use of connectives is piecemeal, largely limited to imitations of parental use (Morris, 2008). Over time, preschoolers' use increasingly conforms to the rules of their" (Berk 388) Berk, Laura E.

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"Preschoolers comprehend the passive best when the subject of the sentence is an animate being and the verb is" (Berk 388) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Evidence that grammatical development is an extended, learned process, beginning with knowledge of specific instances and build- ing toward general categories and rules, has raised questions about " (Berk 388) Berk, Laura E.

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" In _____________, for example, they use word meanings to figure out sentence structure. Children might begin by grouping together words with "agent qualities" (things that cause actions) as subjects and words with "action qualities" as verbs. Then they merge these categories with observations of how words are used in sen- tences " (Berk 389) Berk, Laura E..

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"Other theorists believe that children master grammar through direct observation of the _________They notice which words appear in the same positions in sentences, take the same morphological endings, and are similarly combined with other words" (Berk 389) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file.

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"Another theory holds that children do not start with innate knowledge but have a special language-making capacity—a set of procedures for analyzing the language they hear that supports the discov- ery of" (Berk 389) Berk, Laura E..

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"Find- ings revealed that parents reformulated as many as ____ of children's erroneous expressions—a rate that was similar across the error types and the five children." (Berk 389) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Many adult reformulations inform children about grammar through two techniques, often used in combination:____—restructuring inac- curate speech into correct form; and _____—elaborating on children's speech, increasing its complexity " (Berk 389) Berk, Laura E..

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".

For example, if a child says, "I gotted new red shoes," the parent might respond, "Yes, you got a pair of new red shoes," ____ the incorrect features of the child's statement while also _____ its complexity." (Berk 389) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13.

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"Besides mastering phonology, vocabulary, and grammar, children must learn to use lan- guage effectively in" (Berk 390) Berk, Laura E..

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"n early childhood, additional conversational strategies are added.

In the ______, the speaker not only comments on what has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again. Because 2-year-olds cannot generate many words in each turn, they seldom use turnabouts, but children do so increasingly over the next few years" (Berk 390) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition.

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"Between ages 5 and 9, more advanced conversational strategies appear, such as _________, in which a speaker initiates a change of topic gradually by modifying the focus of discussion" (Berk 390) Berk, Laura E..

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"Effective conversation also depends on understanding __________—what a speaker means to say, even if the form of the utterance is not perfectly consistent with it.

" (Berk 390) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file.

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"When his mother exclaims, "It's trash pickup day!" this 10-year-old comprehends her statement as an" indirect request

"Finally, the presence of a sibling enhances young children's" (Berk 391) Berk, Laura E.. Child Development, 9th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Feb-13. VitalBook file. The citation provided is a guideline. Please check each citation for accuracy before use.