Personality
an organized combination of a person's unique motives, behaviors, attitudes, and values.
Self-Concept
The descriptive component of self. (such as "I teach psychology & I enjoy it.)
self-esteem
is the evaluative component of self.
(I feel good about my ability to communicate information to students via lecture.)
Erikson + Freud both believed that people in every culture progress through stages of personality development.
Erikson stages encompassed the whole lifespan, while Freud's did not.
Costa & McRae's Big 5Life is just an OCEAN of experience
1. Openness to experience2. Conscientiousness3.
Extroversion4. Agreeableness5. NeuroticismIf you are high on these, you are trustworthy and compliant.
If high on conscientiousness you are well organized and highly disciplined.
A people person would be somebody high on extraversion. They typically crave excitement.
If you are high on Neuroticism you're hostile, anxious, and feel guilty. Generally preoccupied.
Openness to experience generally loves new and novel activities, new restaurants, vacation spots, etc.. etc..
The agreeableness high members are generally trustworthy and compliant.
The big 5 traits are genetically influenced, some more than others, Evolutionary Psychologists, and Geneticists, strongly believe this.However, social learning theorists, focus more on the role of environment as it shapes personality
Social Learning theorists argue that personality can change with age if they experience different environments as they get older.
They argue that personality can change, if the environment to which you are exposed changes significantly as you age.
The average newborn by: George Herbert Mead
Believed that the average newborn is born without a sense of self. In other words, genes and environment conspire to bring this about.
Development occurs fairly rapidly, Thus by age nine-month ELMER sees a rabbit in the yard, he looks at his father Fudd and tries to direct his attention to the rabbit.
Elmer's behavior illustrates the process of Joint-Attention (This process is typically missing in autistic kids)
Between 18-24 months self-recognition kicks in, as demonstrated by the infant's ability to recognize himself in the mirror, or in a photo.
k
A categorical self involves identifying categories or features that define who we are.
Typically the first categories that kid place themselves into are gender and age."Me a boy & me 3 years old."
temperament
is best described as a genetically based tendency to respond in a particular way.
types of temperaments
Below
a. Easy Temperament
Is characterized by happiness and openness to new experience, taking laid back approach, and taking what happens in stride.
Q/A :3 year old Gerber is eating string peas for the first time, though this is a new experience, she seema happy, her temperament she is likely adapted to is easy temperament
b. Difficult Temperament
high irritability & negative reactions to change in routine.Q/A: Infant Marisa cries and throws tantrums when she doesn't get her way, she becomes very upset when her parents try to change her diaper.
c. Slow-to-Warm-Up Temperament
relative inactivity and mild reactions to change in routine. Generally neutral emotionally, usually does not get especially thrilled or irritated.
q/a While she does not scream when her parents try to cuddle with her, Inga demonstrates some disapproval of this activity.
Thomas & Chess
longitudinal study of temperament found that the largest percentage of infants were classified as Easy Temperament.
One trait typically associated with anxiety disorders is
behavioral inhibition.They are generally high in neuroticism and low in extroversionThese people often have an elevated and exaggerated fear response to environmental stimuli.
Which create only mild stimulation in most other people.While normally calm Susy becomes highly stressed and upset in an environment that she does not know
Kagan found that
Kagan found that behavioral inhibition is biologically rooted.
the tendency to approach a new situation in a positive way is called
Surgency."I'm always excited in a good way to meet new people."
A person high in negative affectivity is irritable, is more often than typical irritable, fearful, sad, and easily frustrated.
k
When asked to describe his sister Maggy, Jake says it's like she's afraid all the time. It's likely that Maggie scores high on?
Answer: Negative Affectivity
Goodness of Fit
is defined as the extent to which a child's temperament is compatible with the social world to which he must adapt.An easily frustrated infant does best with a calm, predictable mom, who will ease him over his failures. And encourage him gently to be more patient, etc...
)
The Self-Concept of most preschoolers is based on physical traits. (size, hair color, etc...
)
At about age 8, a significant change in self-description occurs, from a focus on physical characteristics, to descriptions focusing on social qualities.An example is, generosity, etc...
As a child moves more into middle-childhood (age 8,9,10) Social comparison becomes more common.
"While I am pretty good at baseball, there are some kids in my class that are even better, and some (like that birkhill guy) are much worse."
*** In contrast, PRESCHOOLERS
a. tend to see themselves at the greatest at all things.b.
Some are very upset if that is question, and may be devastated if they are outdone by a member of the opposite sex.c. Are very poor at making comparisons between their skill level + the skill level of others.
Harter's self-perception research with older kids (9,10,11)
Indicated that self-esteem is multi-dimensional, consisting of several distinct domains.
(the actual self, the ideal self, and the future self)
The Ideal Self
While I am not any of these things, I SHOULD BE Smarter less afraid and good at detective work.
American Educators and parents may tend to provide children with an inflated sense of self-esteem.
k
*** In terms of Temperament and later personality
a. Well-adjusted three year-old's tend to be well-adjusted adults.b.
Highly emotional and difficult to control. (3 year olds tend to be impulsive teens)c. Behaviorally Inhibition in preschool is predictive of low extroversion in middle childhood.
Personality tends to fully "gel" (or begin to predict adult personality) in the elementary school years. (by age 8 or 9)
k
Research on the big fish little pond effect
Placing kids with learning disabilities in a regular education room, may negatively impact their self-esteem.
(As they are teased by others, and perceive themselves as less capable)
James Marcia
Took Erikson's concept of identity and subjected it to research.He came up with four "stages of identity development"
stages of identity development
DiffusionForeclosuremoratoriumAchievement
Diffusion
: Which is fairly common in junior high school, but often disappears later. (it involves no conflict, no crisis, no clue, no future long-term, no viable salient future goals.) The person is scattered, fragmented, and confused with regard to identity.(example: John does not really know what he wants to be when he grows up, and couldn't care less about exploring serious possibilities.
)These people when diffusion persists have often come from neglectful or rejecting parents.
Foreclosure:
involves key life decisions regarding school, career, romantic partner, religious affiliation, or political affiliation.Have been made for you by significant others (Most often parents)people from this status tend to come from authoritarian parents. These people are often non-anxious. After all, the decision has been made, and it sounds good.They may be dissatisfied later with the choices that were made for them.
Moratorium
is a timeout relatively free of heavy duty commitments. You can thus explore your options.Ways of experiencing it include1. Joining the military2. Joining the Peace Corps3.
Leaving the family business to take some college courses.4. Leaving College to think about what you want5. Switching your major in college (after much deliberation)Moratorium typically involves Anxiety and preoccupation Crisis and Deliberation
Achievement
you are ready to zero in on option that is the best fit for you.
It may not be the best money maker, or confer the most prestige, etc...It is the best for you however.(even though I have done well in pre-law courses, I have decided to become an elementary school teacher)this is because it is me.People reaching moratorium and achievement are more likely to come from authoritative parenting
With regard to identity statues
a.
The rate of identity achievement across domains (politics, career, religion) of identity differ. (you may be identity achieved in your intimate relationship, but in foreclosure when it comes to career.)b. Some reliable sex differences in identity achievement have been observed. (females tend to attach a greater emphasis on aspects of identity involving balancing family and career goals; than do males)c. The actual process of identity achievement is sometimes different than the theory proposed by Marcia.
(you may be in disclosure, and then slip in to diffusion)An adolescent who is narrative about their life, are less likely to be foreclosed.
The sense of personal identification with an ethnic group and its cultural values and traditions is called
ethnic identity.
regarding ethnic identity
a. In this regard, the process of developing an ethnic identity is very similar with developing other identities.
b. By age three months, most infants have just begun to demonstrate the difference in faces they notice of people from different racial backgrounds.c. A positive sense of ethnic identity can protect a teen from damaging effects of racial or ethnic discrimination.
By adolescence, choices have become more realistic, when it comes to
vocational identity and decisions.
College attendance seems to provide the moratorium period that Erikson and Marcia believed was essential to identity formation.
k
Self-esteem rates tend to be highest in people in their 60's versus (20's 40's, 80's or 90's) because people are still cognitively together, and these older individuals may well retain a sense of high self-esteem, by reducing the ideal-real (actual) self-gap.
(You are more settled knowing that you will likely not go further professionally, and thus, have fewer ideal goals, and are more satisfied with where you are in life than at other ages)
When contemplating self-esteem older individuals tend to compare themselves with, older and unhealthy people.
No wonder they feel good!
Broad personality dimensions like extroversion and neuroticism are fairly stable across adulthood.
Why is it fairly stable? Because of heredity, and the tendency of our environments to remain fairly stable.Their levels across adulthood tend to be fairly similar from one age to another.
There is generally more change in personality between adolescence and middle age than there is between middle age and old age.
k
Erickson's 8 stages
Trust v. Mistrust - 0-1 1/2Autonomy vs. shame - 1 1/2-3Intiative vs. guilty - 3-5Industry vs. inferiority 5-12ego identity vs.
role confusion 12-18intimacy vs. isolation 18-40Generativity vs stagnation 40-65ego integrity vs. despair 65 +
Erikson said that the 30's 40's and 50's involved the conflict of
Generativity:
An abiding concern with the next generation as most significantly experienced through relationships with one's own children.
Stagnation:
A sense of drifting - no salient issues to which to devote one's self.
Erikson's last stage 60's 70's 80's and up.
Integrity:
A sense of this life as one's only life when on earth + an acceptance of one's own mortality.
Despair:
bitterness, a sense of fear of death. Feeling like you didn't accomplish all you wanted + and it is not too late to do it over, you're going to die.
The event best associated with Erikson's integrity vs. despair is a
life review.
Life Review:
you think about the past, and have accepted your past failures and shortcomings.
Research on successful aging has found more support for
Activity theory with regard to successful aging.An example, the old person is actively involved in the changes and adjustments linked to aging.(Homer has been bored in his retired life & takes up golf lessons.
He practices golf 3 hours a day)
Disengagement Theory
on the other hand claims that, old people become disengaged from people, places, and events as a preparation for death.
Mid-Life Crisis
Most middle-aged people experience some questioning of self during mid-life but few experience a true mid-life crisis.
Q/A 60 year old Joanne was a secretary for 30 years, she continues to type every day, and as such her skills continue to keep up. What process is due to her continued high level of
Answer: OptimizationThis may involve practicing the skills associated with both work and play, and doing things like exercising.
(Remaining mentally and physically active)
Phases of retirement
PreretirementHoneymoonDisenchantmentReorientation
Preretirement:
you and your spouse sit down and begin talking about how your travel and financial status will be effected when you retire in a few years
Honeymoon:
A month or so after retirement (and for some a few months after) most workers feel great about being retired & believe this great feeling will last forever.
Disenchantment
About 1 year after retirement many people feel bored with retired life. They feel like they have nothing to do.
Reorientation
The person is now more realistic about and satisfied with retirement than in (see above) The person has found things to do in meaningful ways to occupy his or her time.
Involuntary Retirement
(most often due to poor health) is the most common reason for a very unsatisfactory retirement.
Kids begin to describe others in terms of inner psychological traits around age 11 or 12.
k
Larry Coburn formulated levels and stages of moral reasoning. In Brief
Level 1 - Preconventional Moral ReasoningIt involves obeying rules just to avoid punishment.
If no one is around to catch you, you do what you want!(young children often function at this level)Doing things for your own self-interestLevel 2 - Conventional Moral ReasoningYou obey the laws + rules in order to avoid disapproval of significant others.An example, you buckle up your seat belt because it is the law and the right thing to do.Level 3 - Post-Conventional Moral ReasoningUsually, you obey the law. However if the law violates an underlying moral or social principle you disobey the law.(In 1963, people in the south were violating laws which forbid African American's from riding in the front of the bus, etc .
. . because this violated the principle that all men are created equal in terms of deserving equal justice under the law.)Most teens and adults do not function consistently at this level but function in the middle of level 2.
Q/A Harvey practically killed his pet hamster when giving it a bubble bath. His parents give a responsive approach by explaining that hamsters don't like baths, and can cause them to die when they get too wet.
when a parent uses an inductive approach to discipline he/she uses explanation and reasoning, not physical punishment.
In 2000 Hoffman suggested a blend of the following in order to foster optimal moral growth in kids.
Frequent Inductions (see #4 above)Occasional assertions of power(I am your dad and you will do as I say)And a lot of affection.
Dodge's social-information processing model says that if you have an aggressive teenager, who gets his possession damaged by another kid, he will
a. Retaliate aggressively if the other kid meant to do it.b. Retaliate aggressively if it's hard to tell what his or her intentions werec. Not retaliate if it is quite obvious that the other kid damaged the possession accidentally.
Children who inherit a predisposition toward aggression may evoke aggressive reactions from parents.
Mom used to be kid and loving, but since adopting psychopathic Timmy she has increased her use of yelling, spanking, to maintain order.
Research on gender differences suggests that girls are more compliant than are boys with authority figures. (teacher, parents, etc..
) but not with their peers.
k
Gender Role Norms
are characteristics that are viewed as desirable within a given society.In the United States of America, girls are socialized to believe that women should be nurturing and take good care of their children.Men are socialized to believe that men should support their family financially.
Gender Role Stereotypes
are overgeneralizations about attributes for each sex. Most are incorrect.
All women are nurturing.All men are assertive.However there is consistent support for the stereotype that males tend to be more aggressive than females.Also, males are more physically active.Also, research has shown that girls tend to be more empathic than boys are.
(Sense of empathy)
Males + Females are a lot more psychologically similar than different.
Adults are more likely to rate an infant that they believe is a female, (even if it's not) as soft and cuddly. They also rate an infant that is male (even if it's not) to be strong and brave.
Most kids demonstrate basic gender identity by age 2 ½ or 3.
Gender Typing
The process by which a child becomes aware that he or she is either male or female, and that there are different cultural expectations concerning behavior for each gender.
Olive has realized that she is a girl and also has begun demonstrating behavior expected of girls.
Gender TypingChildren appear to learn gender stereotypes around the time that they become aware of their basic gender identity. (Age 2 ½ - 3)
Around the age of 30 months, (2 ½ years) children first appear to exhibit a preference for same-sex friendships.
Sex cleavage, (or self-imposed segregation of the 2 sexes, so that males play mostly or solely with males, and same for females) This increases during childhood, and peaks just prior to puberty.Then it declines.
Elanore Maccoby:
suggests that this occurs because the play styles of the two sexes are too different from one another.(Boys see girls play as too sedentary and boring)(Girls see boys play as too aggressive, messy, and loud)
The two age groups that are most likely to view violations of gender role (like a boy wearing nail polish) most negatively are young elementary school aged kids, and adolescents, especially young and middle adolescents.
Gender Intensification
involves an increased intolerance for any deviation of what is perceived as appropriate gender role.(you see it operating when a boy asserts his masculinity among his peers, rather than acting sissyish like a girl.
Androgenized females are girls who have been exposed prenatally (in the womb) to male hormones.
Even though they have inherited an XX chromosome pattern; they have been exposed to drugs are converted to male hormones once in the body.These girls have masculinized genitalia (a bulbous vagina)They generally behave in more masculine ways.
Exposing a female rhesus monkey to testosterone (male hormone) during its prenatal time of development will result in it trying to sexually mount male partners.
k
Research on reinforcement of sex appropriate behaviors indicates that fathers more than mothers are more likely than mothers to discourage youngsters for playing with gender-inappropriate toys.
k
Research on gender portrayal on pictures in elementary school books have found that female characters are often still portrayed as passive and helpless.
k
While basic gender identity is established around age 2 ½ or 3, gender stability kicks in around age 4-5 (when this happens, the child knows that gender is stable over time) as is indicated when the child says, "boys grow up to be men, and girls grow up to be women."
It is not until age 5 to 7 that gender consistency develops.(This involves the understanding that gender is consistent or stable across situations)Even when a boy dresses like a girl, he does not become a girl.
The Piagetian Stage of Concrete Operational Thought is the stage most linked to this acquisition of gender consistency.
Kohlberg formulated a cognitive developmental explanation of gender typing. The most common criticism of it is that children often acquire gender type behaviors and preferences before they acquire gender stability and gender consistency.
"I am a boy, therefor I want to do things that boys do."(maybe do some research on this)
The gender roles that kids develop depend on an interaction between biological and societal factors in terms of gender roles.
Biology/genetics/socialization
k
In general gender roles become more traditional and differentiated (mom does most of the house care) Dad takes care of the house & earns a living) in a married couple following the birth of a child.
k
The concept of androgyny shift implies that during mid-life (40's 50's) people begin to adopt some gender traits that are associated with the opposite sex.
(Women become more assertive, men become more nurturant)Karl Wolfgang Jung
Freud's concept of the latency stage (age 6-12) during which sexual impulses become repressed appears somewhat off
target. Since the kids earlier sexual activity (manipulation of the genitals, etc .
. .) seems to continue during school aged years.
Test Question: Which of the following is an example of a symbolic scheme?
Creating a Mental model of a horse.
Test Question: Once, while she was about to take a nap, baby Carolyn accidentally sucked on her blanket this is an example of
Secondary reaction **check this**
Test Question: Jonny always walks to kindergarden, his mother always picks him up, one day mom asks him to walk home from kindergarden.
reversibility
Test Question: According to triarchic theory, people with street smarts have high levels of
Practical intelligence
Test Question: Research on intelligence and creativity has shown that.
rarely have below average Iq's
Test Question: The stability in IQ scores becomes stable at?
age 4 (stability)
