Chapter 6 Learning objectives

Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire to capacity to elicit a response originally elicited by another stimulus. This kind of conditioning was originally described by Ivan Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a tone. The key elements in classical conditioning are the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Classically conditioned responses are said to be elicited.

Many kinds of everyday responses are regulated through classical conditioning, including phobias, mild fears, and pleasant emotional responses.

Even physiological responses such as immune system functioning and sexual arousal respond to classical conditioning. Evaluative conditioning is a type of pavlovian conditioning that can influence attitudes.

stimulus contiguity plays a key role in the acquisition of new conditioned responses, but it does not produce conditioning automatically. A conditioned response may be weakened and extinguished when the CS is no longer paired with the US. In some cases, spontaneous recovery or the renewal effect occurs and an extinguished response reappears.

Conditioning may generalize to additional stimuli that are similar to the original CS. Watson and Rayner conducted an influential early study of generalization with a subject known as Little Albert, whose fear response to a rat generalized to a variety of other white, furry objects. The opposite of generalization is discrimination, which involves not responding to stimuli that resemble the original CS.

Classical conditioning does not require a genuine US, as an already established CS can serve the same role. Higher order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a US.

Skinner pioneered the study of operant conditioning, working mainly with rats and pigeons in Skinner Boxes. Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organisms tendency to emit that response.

The key dependent variable in operant conditioning is the rate of response over time, which is tracked by cumulative recorder. Primary reinforcers are unlearned secondary reinforcers acquire their reinforcing quality through conditioning.

shaping involves gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response. Shaping is the key to training animals to perform impressive tricks. In the operant conditioning, extinction occurs when reinforcement for a response is terminated and the rate of that response declines.

Operant responses are regulated by discriminative stimuli, which are cues that signal whether reinforcement for a response is terminated and the rate of that response declines. Operant responses are regulated by discriminative stimuli, which are cues that signal whether reinforcement is likely. These stimuli are subject to the same processes or generalization and discrimination that occur in classical conditioning

Delayed reinforcement undermines learning. Schedules of reinforcement influence patterns of operant responding.

Intermittent schedules of reinforcement include fixed ration, variable ration, fixed interval, and variable interval schedules. Intermittent schedules produce greater resistance to extinction than similar continuous schedules. ration schedules tend to yield higher rates of response than interval schedules. Shorter intervals and higher rations are associated with faster responding.

Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because its followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because its followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. In escape learning, an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends aversive stimulation, whereas in avoidance learning an organism acquires a response that prevents aversive stimulation. The process of avoidance learning may shed light on why phobias are so difficult to eliminate.

Punishment involves aversive consequences that lead to a decline in response strength. Issues associated with the application of physical punishment as a disciplinary procedure include emotional side effects, increase aggressive behavior and behavioral problems. recent research suggests that corporal punishment may inhibit cognitive development in children.

conditions taste aversions can be readily acquired even when a lengthy delay occurs between the CS and US. the finding on conditioned taste aversion suggest that evolution may have programmed some organisms to learn certain types of associations more easily than others

preparednes appears to explain why people acquire phobias of ancient sources of threat much more readily than modern sources of threat. Evolutionary psychologists argue that learning process vary somewhat across species becasue different speiccies have to grapply with very different adaptive problems

Tolmans studies suggested that learning can take place in the absence of reinforcemnt, which he called latent learning. His finding suggested that cognitive processes contribute to conditioning, by his work was not influential at the time

rescorlas work on signal relations showed that the predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning. When a response is followed by a desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be strengthened if the response appears to have cause the outcome.

Non contingent reinforcement, cognitive biases, and irrational reasoning appear to contribute to superstitious behavior. Studies of signal relations suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than originally believed.

in observational learning, an organism is conditioned vicariously by watching a models conditioning. Both classical and operant conditioning can occur through observational learning, which extends their influence.

The principles of observational learning have been used to explain why physical punishment increases aggressive behavior.

Observational learning depends on the process of attention, retention, and motivation. Even animals can learn through observation.

In a landmark study, Bandura and colleagues demonstrated that exposure to aggressive TV models led to increased aggression in children, especially when the TB models were reinforced for the aggression

Research on observational learning has played a central role in the debate about the effects of media violence for many decades. Both experimental and correlational studies suggest that violent media contribute to increase aggression among children and adults and desensitization to the effects of aggression

One theme involves the interaction of heredity and environment in learning.

The other involves the way progress in psychology affects society at large.

Classical conditioning can make you want to buy something (advertising) or make you fearful of something that is typically not scary (Little Albert)