DOC1 Chapter 5 Teacher – Centered Instructional Strategies

is a method for delivering instruction that is intended to help students achieve the learning objective. Strategies range from being very explicit and teacher directed to being less explicit and student centered. This section considers a continuum of instructional approaches from various perspectives: (1) teacher-centered to student-centered approaches, (2) direct to indirect approaches, and (3) the gradual release of responsibility model. In addition, the issue of using deductive and inductive instructional strategies is considered.

are those in which teachers tell the students the concept or skill to be learned and then lead students through most of the instructional activities designed to bring about student learning. Direct instructional approaches include direct instruction, presentations, demonstrations, questions, recitations, practice and drills, reviews, and guided practice and homework.

are those that involve some type of exploratory activity that helps lead students to discover a concept or generalization. Teachers employ several strategies to help students attain the concepts. Inductive approaches include concept attainment strategies, inquiry lessons, and projects, reports, and problems.

have students working together in various ways to gather, process, and learn information or skills. The teacher acts as a facilitator, rather than the information giver. Social approaches include discussions, cooperative learning, panels and debates, role playing, simulations, and games.

allow students to pursue content independently with less teacher direction than other lessons. Students sometimes are permitted to pursue their own interests. Independent approaches include learning centers, contracts, and independent work.

Teacher-centered instructional strategies are sometimes referred to as direct instruction. With direct instruction, the teacher typically selects the instructional objectives, the corresponding content, and the instructional strategies that will be used in the lessons. The teacher structures the learning environment and is primarily the conveyer of information in teacher-directed instructional activities (e.g., presentations, demonstrations, recitations, drill and practice). Students generally are not involved in the selection of objectives, content, or instructional strategies. Students have a relatively passive role in the process, often responding to teacher-specified directions to achieve the learning outcomes. Direct instruction lends itself more to the lower level of the revised Bloom's taxonomy with emphasis on knowing and remembering the facts, understanding the facts, and applying them to some degree. Generally, there are fewer objectives in the higher-higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy in direct instruction, partly because students are not expected to be very active in the learning process or in constructing their own learning. Assessments are more likely to be tests, quizzes, and other selected-response assessments.

Student-centered instructional strategies are sometimes referred to as indirect instruction. With indirect instruction, the teacher often takes the lead in identifying the instructional objectives and corresponding content, but students may be involved in this process to some degree. Instructional strategies are used that actively involve students through cooperative and interactive approaches such as projects, cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and inquiry approaches. Students interact with peers and are actively involved in the learning process. The teacher serves as a guide and a resource. Indirect instruction lends itself more to the middle and upper levels of the revised Bloom's taxonomy, with emphasis on doing something with the facts—applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating knowledge. Indirect instruction lends itself to authentic and performance assessments.

Think of deductive strategies as being direct. Deductive strategies involve deductive reasoning in which the teacher starts with a known principle or concept followed by examples of the concept. For example, a teacher using a deductive approach might give students the following definition of a topic sentence (the main concept): "A topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. This sentence provides the reader with a sense of the writer's purpose. The rest of the paragraph contains specific details related to this purpose." With the deductive approach, the teacher next might give students some sample paragraphs and highlight the topic sentence to illustrate the concept (examples are provided). Students then could be given sample paragraphs that do not have a topic sentence, and be asked to write a topic sentence for each paragraph. The teacher could then review these sentences and give feedback on the students' performance.

Think of inductive strategies as being indirect. Inductive strategies involve inductive reasoning where the lesson begins with examples, and the students examine the examples in an effort to identify the main principle or concept. For example, a teacher using an inductive approach might give students sample paragraphs with the topic sentences underlined (provide examples). With this strategy, the teacher would not tell students at the start that they are studying topic sentences, nor would the teacher provide a definition of a topic sentence. Instead, students would study the paragraphs and answer questions posed by the teacher. For example, the teacher might ask, "What do the underlined sentences in these paragraphs have in common?" And after receiving a series of answers, the teacher might ask a second question: "Can anyone provide a name for the underlined sentences?" From these two questions, many ideas could be generated. Student thinking is engaged throughout this process. Ultimately, the concept of topic sentences would be identified through this inductive, indirect process. This inductive approach is indirect, but it can be very effective because students interact with the content to make meaning.

calls for the teacher to gain student attention, present new material, reinforce correct responses, provide feedback to students on their progress, and increase the amount of time that students spend actively engaged in learning course content. Its objective is to teach skills and help students to master a body of knowledge. It is teacher-led instruction, with some involvement by students. Ten general principles apply when developing an explicit instruction lesson: 1. Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals. 2. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous prerequisite learning. 3. Present new material in small steps, with student practice after each step. 4. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations. 5. Provide a high level of active practice for all students. 6. Ask many questions, check for student understanding, and obtain responses from all students. 7. Guide students during initial practice. 8. Provide systematic feedback and corrections. 9. Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercises, and when necessary, monitor students during seatwork. 10. Continue practice until students are independent and confident.

is the initial activity of a lesson that is used to gain students' attention, inform students of the lesson objectives, and describe the lesson to students. It is intended to create a mental "set" in students so that they are in a receptive frame of mind for the lesson. Set induction is also referred to by various authors as pre-instructional set, anticipatory set, and advance organizer.

Closure refers to actions that are designed to bring a lesson presentation to an appropriate and satisfying conclusion. Closure has several purposes. First, it helps organize student learning, and promote memory and recall. Second, it helps reinforce important points from the lesson. Third, it helps students reflect on their learning. Fourth, it is an opportunity for the teacher to gauge student understanding and to determine whether there are any remaining misunderstandings.

is an informative talk that a more knowledgeable person makes to less knowledgeable persons. There may be little or no student participation by questioning or discussion. Presentations can be used to disseminate information in a short time, to explain difficult ideas, to stimulate student desire to learn, to present information in a certain way or adapt it to a particular group, or to introduce or explain learning tasks.

involves a visual presentation to examine processes, information, and ideas. The demonstration allows students to see the teacher as an active learner and a model. It allows for students to observe real things and how they work.

is a critical instructional tool, but there are many facets to successful questioning. Guidance about questioning falls into two categories: the kinds of questions and questioning techniques.

tend to have one correct or best answer (e.g., What is the capital of Illinois? Who is the author of Moby Dick?). These questions may be phrased to require either low- or high-level thinking.

are often open ended and usually have many appropriate but different answers (e.g., Why is it important that we continue to explore space? What would be a good title for this story?).

are used to focus students' attention on the day's lesson or on material being discussed. They may be used to determine what students have learned, to motivate and arouse students, to generate interest at the start of or during a lesson, or to check for understanding during or at the close of a lesson. You may need to prompt students when asking questions.

include hints and clues to aid students in answering questions or to assist them in correcting an initial response. A prompting question is usually a rewording of the original question with clues or hints included.

may be needed when a student does not answer a question completely. In this case, you may stay with the same student by asking one or more probing questions that are intended to seek clarification and to provide guidance to more complete answers (e.g., What do you mean by that? Could you explain that more fully? What are your reasons for that?).

involves a teacher asking students a series of relatively short answer questions to determine if they remember or understand previously covered content. There are three main purposes of a well-orchestrated recitation: (1) to ensure that all students know whether a given answer is right or wrong (2) to ensure that all students are aware of the most complete, appropriate, and correct response to each question (3) to help students connect new knowledge to prior learning and experiences and help move it into long-term memory.

involves going over material just learned. Practice is intended to consolidate, clarify, and emphasize what the student has already learned. Practice sessions are more meaningful when spread out over time (not just the day before a test), when conducted in context, when whole issues are examined rather than parts, and when used in different activities.

involve repeating information on a particular topic until it is firmly established in the students' minds. It is used for learning that needs to be habitualized or to be retained a long time (e.g., multiplication tables). Many teachers find that drills work best at a certain point in the lesson, such as at the beginning of class.

is an opportunity for students to look at a topic another time. A review differs from practice and drill in that it does not require drill techniques. It does involve reteaching and is intended to reinforce previously learned material and to sometimes give new meaning to the material. Reviews can be in the form of summaries at the ends of lessons, units, or terms; quiz games; outlines; discussions; questioning sessions; and other approaches.

involves students working on in-class assignments, often independently. Students in grades 1 through 7 spend more time working alone on seatwork than on any other activity; approximately 50 to 75 percent of their time involves seatwork. Therefore, it is important to learn how to maintain student engagement during seatwork.

often takes the form of repetition drills and question-and-answer sessions. Drill is the intensive repetition of content to ensure swift, accurate responses. It is intended to establish associations that are available without "thinking through" each time that the associations are needed. Drill is useful for skill learning and intellectual skills; it is not effective on complex principles and appreciations.

Another type of in-class supervised study is student cooperative practice, in which students help each other during seatwork. In some cases, the students in the groups prepare a common product, such as an answer to a drill sheet, and in other situations the students study cooperatively to prepare for competition that takes place after the seatwork.

is study that students do when they are not under the direct supervision of their teachers, such as study at home, in the library, or in study hall. Homework does not include in-school guided study; home study courses delivered through the mail, television, or on audio- or videotape; or extracurricular activities such as sports teams and clubs