Bio 151 Unit 3

4.5 billion years old

4 billion years ago

3.8 billion years ago

About 3.4-3.5 billion years ago with Prokaryotic fossils made by the layering of sediment

the pattern of evolution over a long period of time

2.7 billion years ago

cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria began to split water during its light dependent reaction which produced copious amounts of Oxygen that saturated the earth's water bodies, combing with iron, thus laying down iron ore sediments (iron oxides). Once the iron was used up, Oxygen gas evaporated into the earth's atmosphere.

this "poisoned" these organisms

2.1 billion years ago

1.5 billion years ago

branching diagram that displays major episodes in the history of life on earth

1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic compounds or molecules (monomers) 2. Abiotic synthesis of polymers 3. Packaging of molecules into Protocells (Protobionts) 4. Origin of the earliest genetic material on earth (RNA) that led to inheritence

hypothesis stating that the early earth atmosphere was a reducing atmosphere which allowed for the abiotic formation of simple organic molecules

results proved that a reducing atmosphere consisting primarily of water, NH3, CH4, and H2 in high temperatures with electrical discharge is ample conditions for the abiotic synthesis of simple organic molecules. (supported the hypothesis)

-atmosphere was neutral; areas around volcanoes allowed abiotic synthesis of monomers -hydrothermal vents in the ocean -meteorites struck earth containing simple organic molecules

dehydration reactions (synthesis)

came into contact with clay, rocks, or hot sand which act as catalysts for polymerization

abiotically derived groups of molecules which achieve self-organization, self assembly, and reproduction.

must be supplied with enzymes

Liposomes, Microspheres, and Coacervates

type of protocell consisting of lipid droplets which exhibit self assembly in water and can reproduce, undergo swelling/shrinking, grow by engulfing other liposomes, and split into smaller liposomes.

-type of protocell -when amino acids are placed on a hot surface, small proteins form, water is added to cool the solution and these proteins proteins form microspheres -grow by absorbing more protein from solution then dividing when a certain size is reached

-type of protocell consisting of droplets that form when solutions of protein, nucleic acid, and polysaccharides are shaken. -catalyze chemical reactions -absorb materials from their environment -secrete product

single-stranded RNA

it can replicate itself abiotically

monomers

variety

a variety of 3D shapes due to the hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases

protein formed by RNA that can catalyze peptide bond formation between amino acids

RNA catalyzes the formation of the protein that then catalyzes RNA replication

there is natural selection for the more efficient cooperatives between RNA and proteins

placental mammals

a general direction of evolutionary change; continuous change of character within an evolved lineage

structures that evolve in one context but become co-opted for another function

cell shape, staining reactions, nutrition/metabolism, specific RNA base sequences

rods, cocci, spirilla, vibrios, spriochetes

gram negative

gram positive

photosynthesize using light, carbon dioxide, and water

use carbon dioxide to build organic molecules

use light energy, but cannot use carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source. They use organic compounds from the environment to satisfy their carbon requirements. They use compounds such as carbohydrates, fatty acids, and alcohols as their organic "food".

unable to fix carbon and form their own organic compounds. They obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environment.

False! Prokaryotes can undergo BOTH aerobic and anaerobic respiration. (Fermentative or respiratory)

Basically any kind of organic molecule can be digested and metabolized by Prokaryotes. Some can digest and metabolize petroleum.

the bringing together of genes from different organisms into a single organism (two parents make a child that contains genes from each parent)

unilateral

Genetic recombination in prokaryotes that is accomplished through cellular contact

Genetic recombination in prokaryotes that is accomplished by viruses.

ability of bacteria to alter their genetic makeup by uptaking foreign DNA from another bacterial cell and incorporating it into their own

The largest mass extinction in the history of life on Earth; it occurred 250 million years ago, driving up to 95 percent of the species in some groups to extinction.

65.5 million years ago; eliminated over 50% of species( including dinosaurs)

A prokaryote that lives in an extreme environment. Extremophiles include methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme thermophiles.

layered rocks that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin films of sediment together

mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and related organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within another cell

a cell that lives within another cell known as the host cell

it could use nutrients released from photosynthetic endosymbiont; an anaerobic host could benefit from endosymbionts that turn the oxygen to advantage.

A hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotes consisting of a sequence of endosymbiotic events in which mitochondria, chloroplasts, and perhaps other cellular structures were derived from small prokaryotes that had been engulfed by larger cells.

A relatively brief time in geologic history when large, hard-bodied forms of animals with most of the major body plans known today appeared in the fossil record. This burst of evolutionary change occurred about 535-525 million years ago.

motion of continents about Earth's surface on plates of crust floating on the hot mantle

periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles, or niches, within their communities

an evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events (ex: an organism's shape depends in part on the relative growth rates of different body parts during development)

Five

master regulatory genes that determine basic features

spherical prokaryotes. They occur singly, in pairs (diplococci), in chains of many cells (streptococci), and in clusters resembling bunches of grapes (staphylococci).

rod-shaped prokaryotes. They are usually solitary, but in some forms the rods are arranged in chains (streptobacilli)

Spiral prokaryotes

a network of modified-sugar polymers cross-linked by short polypeptides

comma-shaped bacterial cells.

corkscrew-shaped prokaryotes

spherical (cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), and spiral (spirilla and spirochetes)

archaebacteria that live in anaerobic environments and produce methane as a by-product of their metabolic processes

peptidoglycan

Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall made of the peptidoglycan layer. Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan that is located between the plasma membrane and the outer membrane.

lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded to lipids)

a sticky layer of polysaccharides or protein that covers the cell wall of many prokaryotes. It enables prokaryotes to adhere to their substrate or to other individuals in a colony.

hair-like structures that are shorter, thinner, and straighter than flagella - used for attachment, not movement (AKA attachment pili)

prokaryotic flagella differ from those of eukaryotes in their molecular composition and their mechanism of propulsion. Prokaryotic flagella are much thinner and are not covered by an extension of the plasma membrane.

A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions

the small, circular segments of DNA that are found in bacteria and that stay separate from the bacterial chromosomes, carry accessory genes

"salt-loving" archaea that live in environments that have very high salt concentrations

flagella

transformation, transduction, and conjugation

mitotic, sexual, and meiotic processes

sexual cycle

haploid

diploid.

Fertilization of an egg and sperm (formation of a zygote)

No, it evolved as a genetic recombination strategy

23

46

the fusion of 2 haploid cells creating a diploid zygote

meiosis

zygotic life cycle

Diploid cells ONLY

Algae-- plant-like protists

pigmentation, storage polysaccharides, and cell wall components

-member of the stramenophile group -unicellular plant-like protist (algae) with a glasslike cell wall made of hydrated silica embedded in an organic matrix (said to fit together perfectly like a shoe-box) -yellow to brown in color -reproduce asexually by mitosis most of the year -can reproduce sexually, but is uncommon -store energy in the form of a glucose molecule called laminarin

Algae

-algae belonging to Alveolates group -unicellular -found mostly in marine habitats but also in freshwater -whirl through the water -red tide forms after dinoflagellate bloom -some are bioluminescent

Some secrete toxins. When these forms becomes too abundant (usually during a red tide), it can cause massive fish kills. Humans can get poisoning if eat shellfish that have been feeding on these blooms. Example of harmful dinoflagellate: Pfisteria piscidia

type of beneficial dinoflagellate that lives in a mutualistic relationship with coral

-AKA Crysophytes -ex: Vaucheria -algae belonging to the stramenophile group -color results from yellow and brown carotenoids, carotene and xanthophyll accessory pigments -most unicellular, some are colonial, some form cyst stages -live in both freshwater and marine environments -similar life cycle to water molds

a freshwater colonial golden algae

-AKA Phaeophyta -protist of the stramenophiles -largest multicellular algae and the most complex -have a thallus comprised of leal-life blade section, stem-like stipe, and root-like holdfast. (NOT homologous to higher plant organs) -flagellated sperm -example: Laminaria (demonstrates alternation of generations)

synonym for air bladder, a swollen hollow structure in brown algae, increases buoyancy

AKA Rhodophyta -protist with presence of red pigment called phycoerytherin -live at great depths, most common in tropical water, can be found in freshwater environments in soils -have sperm that rely on water currents for movement

AKA Chlorophyta -two groups: Chlorophytes and Charophytes -algae most like plants in pigmentation and photosynthetic apparatus -some unicellular and some multicellular/colonial

Sporic Life Cycle

haploid (or gametophyte)

-Primitive Eukaryote of the Excavata clade -lack functional mitochondria but have mitosomes instead that help it gain some energy via glycolysis -have multiple flagella and 2 equally sized nuceli -example: Giardia intestinalis (attacks animal intestines causing extreme diarreah)

algae (plant-like), Protozoans (animal-like), and Fungus-like protists

-heterotrophic fungus-like protist -example: Phytophthora (cause of Irish Potato Famine) -essentially goden algae that have lost capacity for photosynthesis -most are decomposers that grow as cottony masses on dead algae and animals in mainly freshwater habitats -white rusts and downy mildews live on land as plant parasites -have multinucleate filaments known as hyphae -mainly diploid

golden

a filamentous green alga with spiral chloroplasts. It accomplishes syngamy by conjugation. The haploid filaments merely grow close to each other and a conjugation bridge grows across. The protoplast of one cell crosses this bridge into the other cell to establish the zygote.

"sea lettuce" -produces nearly identical looking (isomorphic) sporophyte (2n) and gametophyte (n) generations -exhibits the sporic life cycle

believed to have given rise to plants. They have similarity in chloroplast DNA, ribosomal RNA, and some nuclear genes. They are the only green algae with peroxisomes, and their cell wall structure is most similar to that of higher plants.

colonial sphere of many green algae; flagellated; gametes for differentiation

(of the motile colony series aka volvocine line) single biflagellated cells with a single "cup-shaped" chloroplast. Gametes are just like vegetative cells. Can form protective coating around itself in bad conditions.

Bacteria's contain peptidoglycan that Archaea's lack

Gram Stain

Gram-positive has simpler cell walls with larger amount of peptidoglycan than Gram-negative

In the nucleoid

One

Small rings of separately replicating DNA found in a typical prokaryotic cell

1. They are small 2. They reproduce by binary fission 3. They have short generation times (this is why they can have such large populations)

A large, thick-walled cell type in the filaments of certain cyanobacteria that performs nitrogen fixation (when in a low oxygen environment)

filaments bacterium found in the soil. Ex. Streptomyces

ability of bacteria to alter their genetic makeup by uptaking foreign DNA from another bacterial cell and incorporating it into their own

bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) carry bacterial genes from one host cell to another

DNA transfer from one prokaryotic cell to another via direct contact

The cell donating the DNA uses sex pili to attach to the recipient of the DNA. After contacting a recipient cell, each sex pilus retracts, pulling the two cells together and forming a "mating bridge" that provides an avenue for DNA transfer.

A fertility factor in bacteria -DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient -may exist as a plasmid or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome.

High Frequency Recombination-Bacterial strains that can transfer their chromosome because they have an F-plasmid integrated into their genome

donors

recipients

bacterial plasmids carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics

Nitrogen Fixation

specialized cell that carries out only nitrogen fixation

a relationship in which two different organisms live in close association with each other

symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship

symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed

parasites that cause disease (many are prokaryotic)

proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms

-lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria -don't get released until bacteria dies and cell wall breaks down -example: salmonella

mostly unicellular eukaryote that is not a plant, animal, or fungus (some are colonial or multicellular)

single-celled protists

Protists that combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, and Nuclear Envelope (created cell with nucleus and endomembrane system)

cytoskeleton and microtubular structures

Flagella

changed from a single chromosome to multiple chromosomes that consist of linear DNA with proteins

mitosis

sexual

diploid (2N)

haploid (1N)

fertilization

by syngamy

fusion of 2 haploid cells during syngamy

meiosis (reductive division of diploid cells)

one (one gene for each protein)

-the only diploid stage is the zygote (cell formed from syngamy) -all other stages are haploid -most likely 1st type of sexual cycle to evolve -many algae and fungi have this type of life cycle

-the only haploid stage are the gametes (cells which fuse in syngamy) -all other stages are diploid -this is a typical animal life cycle

-produces haploid stages in addition to gametes and diploid stages in addition to zygotes -typical of some algae and most plants

reduction

True! **But only diploid cells can undergo meiosis**

haploid multicellular organism (or multicellular haploid stage)

diploid multicellular organism (or multicellular diploid stage)

(the excavates) clade of protists that includes Diplomonads and Parabasalids

-Primitive Eukaryote of the Excavata clade -have hydrogenosomes instead of mitochondria -example: Trichomonas vaginalis (STD)

Mitochondria

Fungus-like protist belonging to the Amoebozoan clade -2 types known as Plasmodial slime molds and Cellular slime molds

-type of slime mold -example: Physarum -brightly colored, often yellow/orange -use cytoplasmic streaming to distribute oxygen/nutrient -has a feeding stage which is a multinucleate plasmodium living in organic matter -plasmodium dries up in harsh condition and forms sporangium for sexual reproduction -sporangium undergoes meiosis forming haploid spores that are flagellated or amoeboid and fuse in syngamy -diploid zygote is formed that undergoes mitosis forming the feeding plasmodium

-type of Amoebozoan slime mold -example: Dictyostelium -During sexual reproduction, two haploid amoebas fuse to form diploid zygote that consumes haploid amoebas -the giant diploid cell undergoes meiosis followed by mitosis -new haploid amoebas are released -During the feeding stage (asexual reproduction) haploid solitary amoebas act individually -when food is depleted, solitary cells form an aggregate that functions as a unit -aggregate forms a stalk that supports an asexual haploid fruiting body -haploid spores are released -haploid amoebas emerge from the spore coats

asexual spore that uses a flagellum for locomotion

cell or organ in which gametes develop

female reproductive structure in some plants, including mosses and liverworts

cuticle

fibers

xylem and phloem

dead hollow cells with secondary cell walls thickened with lignin for transport of water and dissolved minerals upwards and outward

living cells with only primary cell walls for transport of sugars and other organic matter in all directions

localized regions of cell division at the tips of shoots and roots

non-vascular embryophytes with dominant gametophyte (n) generation

specialized organs (roots, stem, and leaves)

Aglaophyton

The club mosses -many extinct species which reached the size of modern tress. Only a few, low growing species remain. These have small leaves with only a single unbranched strand of vascular tissue (microphylls).

a homosporous species -sporophyte produces a single type of meiospore which germinates into a gametophyte with both antheridia and archegonia

sporophyl clusters

a heterosporous species -sporophyte produces 2 types of meiospores. Megaspores germinate into female gametophyte which produces only archegonia. Microspores germinate into male gametophyte which produces only antheridia.