LIBERALISM: A commitment to the individual and the desire to construct a society where people can satisfy their interests and achieve fulfilment. Summary * The term ‘Liberal’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’, which refers to a class of free men, in other words, men who were neither serfs nor slaves. * It is associated with ideas of freedom and choice. * Human beings are first and foremost, individuals, endowed with reason. * This implies that each individual should enjoy the maximum possible freedom consistent with a like freedom for all. Although entitled to equal rights and political rights, they should be rewarded in line with their talents and their willingness to work. * Liberal societies are organised around the twin principles: Constitutionalism and consent. It is designed to protect citizens from government tyranny. * Classical liberalism: characterised by a belief in ‘minimal state’ function is to be limited to the maintenance of domestic order and personal security. * Modern liberalism: accept that states should help people to help themselves. Core Values: 1. The individual = Unique and Equal. Feudalism was displaced by increasingly market-orientated societies . * Individuals were encouraged individuals to think for themselves and to think of themselves in personal terms. * A serf was now a ‘free man’ and acquired some ability to choose who to work for and maybe the opportunity to leave the land altogether and look for work in the growing towns or cities. * Rational and scientific explanations gradually displaced traditional religious theories. * Society was understood from the view point of the human individuals. * However, emphasizing the importance of individual has two contrasting implications: ) Individuals are primarily defined by inner qualities and attributes specific to themselves. 2) They nevertheless each share the same status in that they are all first and foremost, individuals. Individuals were thought to posses personal and distinctive qualities: each was of special value. * Immanuel Kant expressed a belief in the dignity and equal worth of human beings. * Belief in the primacy of the individual is the characteristic theme of liberal ideology. * It lead some liberals to views society as simply a collection of individuals, each seeking to satisfy his or her own needs and interests.
A belief in an atomist society. ------------------------------------------------- Atomism: A belief that ‘society’ itself does not exist but is merely a collection of self-sufficient individuals. * Such extreme individualism is based on the assumption that the individual is egoistical, essentially self-seeking and largely self-reliant. * Macpherson (1973) – characterized early liberalism as ‘possessive individualism’ in that it regarded the individual as ‘the proprietor of his own person or capacities, owing nothing to society for them’. Modern Liberals: more optimistic view of human nature: have been more prepared to believe that egoism is tempered by a sense of social responsibility especially a responsibility for those who are unable to look after themselves. * All liberals are united in their desire to create a society in which each person is capable of developing and flourishing to the fullness of his or her potential. 2. Freedom = Individual liberty the supreme political value and the unifying principle within liberal ideology. * Classical liberals: liberty was a natural right and an essential requirement for leading a truly human existence.
It gave individuals the opportunity to pursue their own interests by exercising: the choice of where to live, who to work for and what to buy etc. Modern Liberals: Liberty as the only condition in which people are able to develop their skills and talents and fulfil their potential. Belief in the supreme importance of the individual leads naturally to a commitment to individual freedom. * Liberals do not accept that individuals have an absolute entitlement to freedom. * If liberty is unlimited it can become ‘licence’, the right to abuse others. John Stuart MILL: the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will is to prevent harm to others. Therefore, he accepts only the most minimal restrictions on individual freedom and then only in order to prevent ‘harm to others’. * He described action as ‘Self-regarding’: individuals exercise absolute freedom. Other-regarding: restrict the freedom of others or them damage. * MILL does NOT accept any restrictions on the individual that are designed to prevent a person from damaging him or herself physically or morally. Although the individual may be sovereign over his or her body and mind, each must respect the fact that every other individual enjoys an equal right to liberty. * RAWLS: Everyone is entitled to the widest possible liberty consistent with a like liberty for all. * Liberals agree about the value of liberty. Not always agreed about what it means for an individual to be ‘free’. Berlin: NEGATIVE freedom and POSITIVE freedom. * Classical Liberals: Negative Freedom: Freedom consists in each person being left alone, free from interference and able to act in whatever way they may choose.
This conception of freedom is ‘negative’ because it is based on the absence of external restrictions or constrains on the individual. * Modern liberals: Positive Freedom: The ability to be one’s own master, to be autonomous. Self-mastery requires that the individual is able to develop skills and talents, broaden his or her understanding and gain fulfilment. 3. Reason = Liberal case for freedom linked closely with a faith in REASON. * The purpose of the ‘Enlightenment period’ was to release humankind from its bondage to superstition and ignorance and unleash an ‘age of reason’. Enlightenment rationalism strengthened liberal’s faith in both the individual and liberty. * Human beings are rational, thinking creatures and they are capable of defining and pursuing their own best interests. * Liberal’s belief in reason builds a strong BIAS against paternalism. ------------------------------------------------- PATERNALISM: prevent individuals from making their own moral choices and learning from their own mistakes. It creates the prospect that those invested with responsibility for others will abuse their position for their own ends. Liberals are inclined to view human history in terms of progress. Progress literally means advance, a movement forward. * In the liberal view, the expansion of knowledge, especially through scientific revolution, enabled people to understand and explain their world as well as shape it for the better. * The power of reason gives human being the capacity to take charge of their own lives and fashion their own destinies. * Reason thus emancipates humankind from the past and from the weight of custom and tradition. * Each generation is able to advance beyond the former generation’s knowledge.
This explains the Liberal emphasis on education. People can better or improve themselves through the acquisition of knowledge and the abandonment of prejudice and superstition. * Modern Liberals: Education is thus a good in itself. It is a vital mean of promoting person self development and achieving historical and social advancement. * Reason is significant in highlighting the importance of discussion, debate and argument. * * Individuals batter for scarce resources. * Businesses compete to increase profits. * Nations struggle for security
While liberals are generally optimistic about human nature, they hardly ever subscribe to the ideal doctrine of human perfectibility because the recognized the power of self-interest and egoism. The inevitable result of this would be Rivalry and conflict. The liberal preference is clearly that such conflicts be settled through debate and negotiation. * Advantage of reason: it provides a basis on which rival claims and demands can be evaluated. It highlights the cost of not resolving disputes peacefully namely, violence, bloodshed and death. * Liberals therefore deplore (criticize) the use of force and aggression.
War is invariable seen as an option of the very LAST RESORT. * Liberal perspective: the use of force is justified either on the grounds of ‘self –defence’ or as a mean of ‘countering oppressions’ but ALWAYS and only after reason and arguments have been exhausted. 4. Justice = Liberal theory of justice is based on a belief in equality. * Indicates MORAL JUDGMENT: Particularly about REWARDS and PUNISHMENTS. * Justice is about giving each person what he or she is ‘due’. * Social justice: refers to the distribution of material rewards and benefits (wages, profits, housing, medical care and welfare benefits. 1st Individualism implies a commitment to FOUNDATION EQUALITY. Human beings are seen to be ‘born equal’ = each individual is of equal moral worth, an idea embodied in the notion of natural rights or human rights. 2nd Foundation equality= implies a belief in FORMAL EQUALITY the idea that individuals should enjoy the same FORMAL STATUS in society. ------------------------------------------------- * Liberals fiercely disapprove of any social privileges or advantages that are enjoyed by some but denied to on others on the basis of factors such as gender, race, colour, screed, religion or social background. Liberalism is ‘difference blind’ A concept based on the belief that everyone is treated the same regardless of any feature specific to him or her. However, it seems self-defeating in that to treat everyone identically would have an unequal impact on different cultures thus neglecting its own purpose. By treating everyone the same, some are inevitably favoured. * * Legal Equality: emphasises ‘equality before the law’ and insists that all non-legal factors be strictly irrelevant to the process of legal decision–making. * Political Equality: embodied in the idea of ‘one person, one vote, one value’.
Underpins the liberal commitment to democracy. Most importance forms of formal equality are: (1) Legal Equality (2) Political Equality. * Liberal subscribe to a belief in equality of opportunity. Each and every individual should have the same chance to rise or fall in society. The game of life should be played on an even playing field. * However, that does not mean that reward, living conditions and social circumstances should be the same for all. * Liberals believe social equality to be undesirable because people are not born the same. They possess different talents and skills and some are prepared to work much harder than others. Liberals believe it is right to reward merit, ability and the willingness to work. It is essential to do so if people are to have an incentive to realise their potential and develop the talents they were born with. * EQUALITY (liberal view) = Individuals should have an equal opportunity to develop their unequal skills and ability. * ------------------------------------------------- Believe in Equality Belief in MERITOCRACY. * * Classical Liberals: Endorsed strict meritocracy on both economic and moral grounds. Economically, they place heavy stress on the need for incentives (encouragement/motivation).
Morally, justice requires that unequal individuals are not treated equally (e. g. A Murderer should be deprived from treated equally) * Modern liberals: social justice to imply a belief in some measure of social equality. RAWLS: argued that economic inequality is only justifiable if it works to the benefit of the poorest in society. Meritocracy = Rule by those with merit. Intelligence + effort= Merit. Therefore, a meritocracy society is one which social position is determined exclusively by ability and hard work. 5. Toleration = A willingness to accept and celebrate moral, cultural and political diversity. An acceptance of PLURALISM can be said to be rooted in the principle of individualism, and the assumption that human beings are separate and unique creatures. * Liberal preference for diversity has more commonly been associated with toleration. * VOLTAIRE: ‘I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it’. * Toleration is both an ethical ideal and a social principle. It represents the goal of personal autonomy and it also establishes a set of rules about how human beings should behave towards one another. * LOCKE: The proper function of government is to protect life, liberty and property.
Therefore it has no right to meddle in the care of men’s souls. * Toleration should be extended to all matters regarded as private on the grounds that they concern moral question that should be left to the individuals. * MILL: Individual point of view: Toleration is primarily a guarantee of personal autonomy and is thus a condition of moral self –development. Nevertheless, toleration is also necessary to ensure the vigour and health of society as a whole. * Only within a free market of ideas will ‘truth’ emerge as good ideas will eventually replace bad ones and ignorance is progressively banished. Contest, debate and argument are therefore the motor of social progress. * MILL: toleration was threatened by democracy and ‘dull conformism’ which is linked to the belief that minority must always be right. * Sympathy for toleration and diversity is also linked to the liberal belief in a balanced society. Although individuals pursue very different interests, liberals hold that there is a deeper harmony or balance amongst these competing interests. These competing interests also complement one another. Each group is essential to the achievement of the other group goals. 1. The Liberal State Law and government are necessary because liberals fear that free individuals may exploit others for their own interest and advantage. * Thus, the liberty of one person is always in danger of become a license to abuse another, each person is both a threat and under threat from every other member of society. * Our Liberty requires that Individuals are restrained from encroaching on others freedom and in turn their liberty requires that they are safeguarded from us. * Liberals have traditionally believed that such protection can ONLY be provided by a SOVEREIGN STATE, capable of restraining all individuals and groups within society. Freedom can only exist under the law. * LOCKE: Where there is no law, there is no freedom. * Social Contract Theory: Rational individuals would enter into an invisible agreement or ‘social contract’ to establish a sovereign government without which orderly and table life would be impossible. Locke and Hobbs: In a ‘stateless society’ or ‘STATE OF NATURE’, human life would be ‘solitary, poor and nasty and brutish and short’ * All individuals would recognize that it is in their interests to sacrifice a portion of their liberty in order to set up a system of law otherwise their rights; lives would constantly be under threat. The social contract embodies two important liberal attitudes towards the state and political authority: 1) Political authority comes ‘FROM BELOW’. The state is created by individuals and for individuals; it exists in order to serve their needs and interests. Government arises out of the agreement of the governed. This implies citizens do not have absolute obligation to obey all the laws or accept any form of government. However, when the legitimacy of government evaporates, the people have the right of rebellion. 2) Social contract theory portrays the state as an umpire or neutral referee in society.
The state embodies the interests of all its citizens and acts as a neutral arbiter when individuals or groups come into conflict with one another. The purpose of the social contract argument is to highlight the value of the sovereign state to the individual. * Thus, the state is not created by privileged elite, wishing to exploit the masses but out of an agreement amongst all the people. * The essential characteristic of any such umpire is that its action are, and are seen to be, impartial. * Liberal thus regards the state as a neutral arbiter amongst the competing individuals and groups within society. 2. Constitutional Government Liberals are convinced of the need for government but also AWARE of the dangers that government embodies. * All government are potential tyrannies against the individual. This is based on the fact that government exercises sovereign power and poses a constant threat to individual liberty. * Liberal fear of power. As human beings are self-seeking creatures, if they have power – the ability to influence the behaviour of others – they w ill natural use it for their own benefit and at the expense of others. * Liberal position: EGOISM + POWER = CORRUPTION. * Lord Acton: Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely’.
Great men are almost always bad men. * Liberals therefore fear arbitrary government and uphold the principle of limited government. * Government can be limited or tamed through the establishment of constitutional constraints and by democracy. ------------------------------------------------- Support for constitutional takes two forms: 1) 1. The powers of government bodies and politicians can be limited by the introduction of extern legal constraints. An example: ‘Written constitution’:- which codifies the major powers and responsibilities of government institutions within a single authoritative document.
A written constitution thus constitutes ‘higher’ law. Where neither written constitutions nor bills of rights exist, Liberal STRESS the importance of statue law in checking government power through the principle of the rule of law. 2) Constitutionalism can be established by the introduction of internal constraints which disperse political power among a number of institutions and create a network of ‘checks and balances’. A constitution: A set of rules that seeks to allocate duties, power and functions amongst the carious institutions of government.
It therefore constitutes the rules that govern the government itself. It defines the extent of government power and limits its exercise. * Other device for fragmenting government power include 1) Cabinet government (checks the power of the PM) 2) Parliamentary government (checks the power of the executive) 3) Bicameralism (checks the power of each legislative chamber) 4) Territorial divisions – Federalism, devolution and local government All liberal political systems exhibit some measure of internal fragmentation which can be achieved by applying the doctrine of separation of power proposed by Montesquieu. Separation of power: The legislative, executive and judicial powers of government should be exercised by three independent institutions thus preventing any individual or small group from gaining dictatorial power. * The principle of judicial independence is respected in all liberal democracies. 3. Liberal democracy = A form of political rule that balances the principle of limited government against the ideal of popular consent. * Liberal democracy is the dominant political force in the developed and the developing world. Its ‘liberal’ features are reflected in a network of internal and external checks on government that are designed to guarantee liberty and afford citizen protection against the state. * These goals are essentially achieved through constitutional government. * The ‘democratic’ character of liberal democracy is based on a system of regular and competitive election, conforming to the principles of universal suffrage and political equality. Core Features: 1. Constitutional government 2. Guaranteed civil liberties and individual rights. . System of checks and balances 4. Regular elections following the principle of universal suffrage: ‘one person; one vote’. 5. Political pluralism: electoral choice and party competition. 6. A healthy civil society: organized groups and interests enjoy healthy independence from government. 7. Capitalist or private-enterprise economy organized along market. Problematic concept: The hybrid nature of liberal democracy reflects a basic ambivalence (two opposing ideas/attitudes/emotions) within liberalism towards democracy. The problem is rooted in the competing implications of individualism which both embodies a fear of collective power and leads to a belief in political equality. * 19th century: Liberals saw democracy as threatening or dangerous. * PLATO & Aristotle: viewed democracy as a system rule of the MASSES at the expense of wisdom and property. * The central liberal concern has been that democracy can become the ENEMY of individual liberty. * This arises from the fact that ‘THE PEOPLE’ are not a single entity but rather a collection of individuals and groups, possessing different opinions and opposing interests. The democratic solution: the will of the majority or greatest should prevail over that of the minority. * ‘The rule of the 51%’- a concept by ALEXIS who described democracy as ‘the tyranny of the majority’. Individual liberty and minority rights can thus be crushed in the name of the people. * MADISON argued that the best defence against majoritarianism is a network of checks and balances that would make government responsive to competing minorities and also safeguard the propertied few from the property-less masses. -------------------------------------------------
Liberals have doubts about democracy: Danger of the majority rule and makeup of the majority in modern industrial societies. * MILL: political wisdom is unequally distributed and is largely related to education. The uneducated are more liable to act according to narrow class interests where as the educated are able to use their wisdom and experience for the good of others. * MILL: insisted that elected politicians should speak for themselves rather than reflect the views of their electors and proposed a system of plural voting. GASSET: warned that the arrival of mass democracy has led to the overthrow of civilized society and moral order, paving the way for authoritarian rulers to come to power by appealing to the basest instincts of the masses. * Earliest liberal justification for democracy was found on CONSENT and the idea that citizen has a means of protecting themselves from the encroachment of government. * LOCKE: developed a limited theory of protective democracy by arguing that voting rights should be extended to the propertied, who could then defend their natural rights against government. If government through taxation possess the power to expropriate (confiscate) property, citizens are entitled to protect themselves by controlling the composition of the tax-making body. ------------------------------------------------- SLOGAN used during American Revolution – NO TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION. * Bentham and MILL: developed the notion of democracy as a form protection for the individual into a case for UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. * UTILITARIANISM: implies that individuals will vote so as to advance or defend their interests as they define them.
Bentham believed that universal suffrage is the only way of promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number. * MILL: democracy in its unrestrained form leads to Tyranny but in the absence of democracy, ignorance and brutality will prevail. Liberalism in the 21st century * The high point of liberal optimism came in the aftermath of the collapse of communism. * Liberal democracy was revealed as the final solution to the problem of political organisation. There are two main reasons for believing that liberalism will continue through the 21st century, making it the century of global liberalism. ) As societies become increasingly complex and diverse, the task of maintaining political stability requires the existence of sophisticated channels of communication between government and the people that only a liberal polity can provide. 2) The advance of liberalism is closely linked to the seemingly remorseless construction of a global capitalist system. A globalized 21st century will therefore coincide with the establishment of global liberalism, in both its economic and political forms. However, liberal triumphalism
