Early childhood development and the way in which children learn has been extensively analysed by a range of educational theorists for several years. These theorists each have their own views on how humans learn and develop, but they will all fall under one of the three ‘schools of thought’ which consist of humanist, cognitivist and behaviourist theories. The purpose of this essay is to introduce just two of these theorists and to compare their theories in relation to the learning process. It is also important to consider how this has affected education todayand whether aspects of the theories have been adopted in modern schools.When studying the theories behind learning and development, it is appropriate to initially identify the biological way humans store information.
Learning begins with perception of the information provided, based on personal views and past experiences. It could be argued that a person’s perceptual ability relies on their previous understanding of a topic. All five senses are used to interpret, though it is most common to initially process the material using the visual sense. Once the perception is determined, the information is stored using memory. There are two types of memory which are both utilised during learning.The short term memory stores facts and information in small stages but does not retain everything.
The long term memory then subconsciously decides what is most important to retain. Both the short term and long term memory are needed in order to learn but even scientists cannot confirm why it is so easy to forget information. Petty (2009) maintains that forgetting and remembering are ‘not under direct conscious control; they are automatic’. A strong stimulus such as colour, light or sound often improves the process of memory as it is something to relate back to.
This could explain why it is often easier to remember stimulating experiences such as music festivals and films but harder to relate back to telephone numbers. Memory is relied upon when learning occurs as the information needs to be remembered in order to understand. The first educational theory to consider was developed by the humanist psychologist Abraham Maslow who approached his studies looking at the whole person and the uniqueness of individuals. Not only did he observe behaviour, he also looked through the eyes of the person performing the behaviour to identify their inner feelings and motivation.
Maslow founded the theory ‘hierarchy of human needs’ and captured his idea in a pyramid diagram dividing human needs, not just children’s, into four categories of basic requirements that need to be reasonably satisfied before reaching the fifth stage of ‘self-actualisation’. He believed each person is capable and has the desire to move up this hierarchy when motivated but only a certain amount of people are physically able to reach the top (TES Magazine, 2011). The first level of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy focused on the biological and physiological requirements of a person such as food, water, shelter and warmth.He believed these basic needs must be met in order to learn. If a child was to arrive at school hungry or poorly clothed, Maslow believed this would have an effect on their learning and they would not be able to fulfil any further needs until they had been satisfied at this level of person-centred principles.
The second stage of the pyramid covered the safety and well-being of the learner which adapted the idea that all humans need security, order, limits and stability in their lives in order to feel worthy and motivated.Once safety has been established, learners are able to progress to the third level, relating to social and relational needs. Relationships with family, friends and peers must be maintained and the needs must be satisfied before reaching the fourth level of self-esteem needs. This fourth stage is very important and can easily be overlooked. Maslow believed in esteem and achievement along with independence and prestige. All four levels must be maintained before reaching self-actualisation; the realisation of one’s potential.
The meaning of this state of self-actualisation, according to Petty, is ‘to make actual what one is potentially… the need to search for the meaning of life’ (2009: p56) which relates to people who are fulfilled and completely doing all they are capable of. Human motivation and the need for personal growth was seen by Maslow as the way to find the meaning of life, though this is different for each individual. Maslow was particularly interested in studying those who were self-actualised and wrote about their specific characteristics which include being highly creative, accepting of themselves, having strong morals and eing concerned with the welfare of humanity (Cullen, 2011). The second theorist to compare, Jean Piaget, certainly influenced educational theory with his view of how children’s minds work and develop.
He based his cognitive theory on the idea that children were not less intelligent than adults, they just think differently. ‘Cognitive’ refers to knowing how and why something works by using thinking skills. Similar to Maslow’s theory, Piaget believed intellectual development happened in ‘stages’ and children would only be able to move onto the next, once they had ‘mastered the first’ (Hayes, 1984: p. 17). Unlike Maslow, Piaget based his stage theory on maturation and the process of being old enough to understand certain situations. He believed there were certain transitions in a child’s life at around age two, seven and eleven where they would begin to comprehend new information which was impossible in the previous stage, as they were not psychologically mature enough to understand it.
He also focused on ‘egocentricism’ which refers to the inability to see other’s perspectives, and how this develops through the years of maturation.Piaget conceived several key terms associated with his theory including ‘assimilation’ and ‘accommodation’. The mental structure of taking in new information or ideas was named ‘assimilation’ which creates a ‘schema’ in the mind. This is then ‘accommodated’ by modifying the information and applying it to other situations creating a ‘schemata’. This ‘building block’ learning forms the basis of Piaget’s theory (Bartlett and Burton, 2012: p.
212). During the sensori-motor stage, from birth to the age of two, Piaget believed a child’s only understanding of life is represented by what they see, feel and hear.Even though a child begins to interact with the environment, they are unable to comprehend the idea that the world is a much bigger place. A child in this stage is described as egocentric “the self (ego) is the centre of everything” (Hayes, 1984: p. 120).
They believe other people see, feel and hear exactly as they do and they cannot understand the concept of others feelings and emotions. The pre-operation stage, between the ages of two to seven, is when Piaget believed a child’s mental schemas develop drastically.During this stage, their language makes rapid progress and they begin to assimilate and accommodate new words and situations. Single words are developed into simple sentences which show instances of ‘animism’ which refers to the way children view everything and even inanimate objects to be alive. Their egocentricism is gradually reduced as they become more aware of others and the environment but it is still a challenge. Objects still tend to be grouped together using one characteristic rather than looking at all the features of the object.
The next stage of maturation, named the concrete operational stage occurs between the ages of seven and eleven where a child begins to develop their skills and logical reasoning. The child isnow able to use their schemata to mentally solve number problems and equations, rather than playing with models, but still requires guidance in tasks. There is also less egocentricism as the child is now able to ‘decentre’ themselves and see other’s perspectives. Finally, the child reaches the formal operational stage around age eleven.They are able to use scientific reasoning based on their own experiences which of course develop throughout adulthood. Piaget stressed that these stages were not definite because each child develops at a different rate, but he did believe the progression from one stage to another was dependent on the child gradually modifying their schemata by assimilating and accommodating information (Hayes, 1984).
Both Maslow and Piaget faced extensive criticisms of their theories. Piaget performed an experiment to demonstrate egocentricism by covering an interesting object and analysing whether children under two would try to find it.When they were disinterested in the object, it proved his theory that during the pre-operational stage, children are only aware of themselves and objects in sight. His theory was challenged during the 1970s by M. Donaldson who performed a similar demonstration but instead of covering the object, switched the lights off.
In this instance, the infants tried to find the object which ultimately concluded that Piaget had been wrong to assume all children during their first stage were egocentric (Hayes, 1984).Similarly, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been criticised for its lack of clarity. Despite the fact the theory has been widely accepted, his critics said there was not enough experimental evidence supporting him and his sample sizes were too small. Maslow encouraged them to replicate his research as he was adamant he had researched enough to form his theory (Simply Psychology, 2007). Looking closely at current schools, it is clear to see the Government’s view on education coincides with Maslow’s hierarchy.Although there has been an increase in the amount of children arriving at school hungry, there has also been a soar in the number of breakfast clubs opening toensure their basic nutrition needs are met.
So much so, this was even incorporated into an official document, set by The Department for Education and Skills, which aims to promote ‘healthy’ lifestyles through ‘Personal, Social and Health Education, breakfast clubs and sporting activities’ (Every Child Matters, 2004: p. 2). These clubs also encourage social interaction and peer relationships, again, fulfilling one of Maslow’s needs before learning occurs. The main driver for the increase in breakfast clubs is the perceived benefit to children and their families - improved learning, attendance and behaviour at school, punctuality, healthy eating, social development, and fun through play” (Teaching Times, 2013). The classrooms of today must create a safe environment for the children and this is in fact a requirement set by law in the Teachers’ Standards document. Teachers are also encouraged to promote self-esteem by praising their students, which can ultimately lead to them reaching the fifth stage of the hierarchy in school.
This praise and reward system of promoting esteem is often done differently depending on the child’s ability and learning style. Children who are fulfilled in these ways could also be described as self-actualised. Likewise, Piaget’s theory is heavily used in schools today. During primary school, children are in the pre-operational and concrete operational stages and in the terms of Piaget are still very egocentric. This could explain why in the first years of primary school, group work is less implemented perhaps because the children are less likely to be able to see other’s perspectives.
The National Curriculum also coincides with his stage theory because the topics and tasks are divided into stages throughout the year based on a child’s ability, yet it is flexible because each child develops at a different rate. Classroom activities in relation to Piaget’s theory are visual during the first stages in order to make learning fun, yet educational. As the child progresses they are able to use their cognitive skills to solve problems and learn abstract principles. Though Maslow and Piaget were by no means in competition with each other, their theories of child development could be seen to have a similar direction.
They both focused on certain stages a human being goes through, though Piaget concentrated on childhood, and similarly thought the environment a child is exposed to can have a major impact on their learning. Piaget studied maturation and how children develop according to their age whereas Maslow believed in fulfilling needs, but this can be related to any age, the needs just become a little more complex as humans mature. It can be concluded that Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs correlates with all of Piaget’s stages of development, just at different strengths as humans grow.
