IIB: Instructional Models and Strategies

Teacher-directed instructional strategies are so named because the teacher controls the content and the progression of the lesson. One primary model of teacher-directed instruction is thus known as direct instruction. Direct instruction is not just one-way presentation of material by the teacher — it can take many forms, including lectures, demonstrations, drills, guided practice (e.g.

, seatwork with teacher assistance as needed), and opportunities for independent practice (e.g., homework). Because this method allows teachers to present a large amount of material to many students in a relatively short time, it is most appropriate for teaching basic and lower-level thinking skills such as concept learning and recall or recognition of facts, procedures, formulas, and other content. Direct instruction is best used for material that is difficult for students to learn independently and may be especially useful for students with learning disabilities.

When to Use:• The objective is to learn a well-defined body of knowledge and skills.• The lesson provides critical information or skills for later instructional units.• Students need considerable guidance and practice in order to learn successfully.Examples:• Explain how to add fractions with different denominators, and give students practice in adding such fractions both in class and through homework.

• Demonstrate how to use a jigsaw, and watch carefully as students use the tool to cut irregularly shaped pieces of wood.

Instructional strategies and cognitive processes associated with indirect instruction include: • Problem solving, including critical and creative thinking.• Reading for meaning (may involve summarizing or sequencing information, making inferences, inductive and deductive reasoning, and predicting outcomes or events).• Inquiry (e.

g., gathering information about an issue or problem; may involve evaluating, comparing and contrasting, synthesizing, and generalizing).• Case studies (e.g., detailed analyses of particular individuals, situations, or events; may include summarizing, analyzing, making inferences, and generalizing beyond the case).• Concept mapping (e.

g., developing graphical representations of links among topics and concepts; may include categorizing, sequencing, and comparing and contrasting).• Cloze procedures (e.g.

, using context to fill in missing words in a paragraph or story; may involve evaluating, making inferences, deductive reasoning, and decision making).Indirect instruction is a student-directed (or learner-directed) model. The teacher sets up the environment and provides a basic framework for the learning activities but then serves as a facilitator for (i.e., scaffolds learning) student interaction and thinking, rather than as a primary source of information; the student serves as the "director" of the learning process. Indirect instruction generally encourages higher-level (i.

e., critical) thinking.

Independent instruction is perhaps the most student-directed model of instruction; in this approach, teachers may (or may not) initiate a project, but the learner generally takes responsibility for setting goals, planning learning activities, and completing the work. Independent projects can take the form of learning contracts, research projects, computer-mediated instruction, and distance learning. A particular strength of independent instruction is that it encourages student self-reliance, self-regulation, and self-evaluation. Effective teachers can help students learn to set goals, manage their time, monitor their own progress, and reflect on their achievements.

Another student-directed instructional model is experiential learning. In this instructional model, students engage in some type of activity, which they analyze and share with classmates. Examples of experiential learning include field trips, experiments, simulations, role playing, games, and observations. Experiential learning emphasizes higher-order thinking skills, with a focus on the learning process itself.

For example, the primary goal of an activity in which students observe animals at the zoo may be for students to become objective observers, with conceptual knowledge about the specific animals as a secondary goal. Experiential learning also encourages planning, questioning, and inductive reasoning, as well as transfer of knowledge from one situation to another. Experiential learning often allows teachers or experienced mentors to serve as models or coaches.

Educators use the term interactive instruction to refer to educational activities that emphasize discussion and cooperation among participants. Interactive instruction is largely student-directed and can take any of the following forms: • Brainstorming (e.

g., free association or unedited, stream-of-consciousness generation of ideas)• Cooperative learning groups (e.g., students work in small groups to achieve a common goal, with success based in part on the collaborative interactions among the participants)• Interviews• Discussions• Peer practice • DebatesInteractive instruction encourages higher-level thinking, such as questioning, problem solving, and metacognition, as well as development of social skills. Interactive instruction also may provide practice in distinguishing fact from opinion, detecting bias, comparing and contrasting, and generalizing. During interactive activities, the teacher can scaffold student learning and model appropriate behaviors.

When to Use:• The objective is to acquire new information.• The lesson involves information best learned within a specific organizational structure.• Students have some capacity for abstract thought, have knowledge to which they can relate new material, and have effective learning strategies for the medium in question (e.

g., note-taking skills for lectures, comprehension-monitoring skills for reading assignments).Examples:• Describe critical battles of World War I to advanced history students.• Demonstrate several defensive strategies to a junior high school soccer team.

Having set learning goals based on the type of thinking skills expected of students, teachers must identify the most appropriate instructional strategy to meet those goals. Instructional strategies vary along a continuum, from largely teacher-directed to largely student-directed strategies.

The choice of instructional method depends on the objectives the teacher wants the students to achieve, and no single model is most effective for all students or for helping students reach all learning objectives. Additionally, the choice of instructional strategy depends on the cognitive processes that are expected of the students during the lesson. Many different instructional strategies are available to teachers. Effective teachers make careful and wise choices, based on the particular learning objectives, the content of the lesson, and the characteristics and abilities of the students.

When to Use:• The objective is to acquire basic knowledge and skills.

• The lesson involves information that students can learn from reading text or from watching and listening to multimedia presentations.• Students have some familiarity with computers and can work with only minimal guidance from their teacher.Examples:• Use a typing-skills tutorial that helps students develop automaticity in keyboarding.• Use educational software designed to teach the basics of musical notation. After students have mastered the basics, follow up with music editor software that allows them to experiment with different notes, keys, instrumental sounds, and time signatures.

When to Use:• The objective is to gain information literacy skills, especially in use of the World Wide Web.• The lesson requires information not readily available in the classroom.• Students have some familiarity with computers, Internet software (e.g., Web browsers), and search engines.

Examples:• Ask students to identify demographic differences among various regions of the United States using data from the U.S. Census Bureau.• Have students learn about current events by visiting the Web sites of national news bureaus and news magazines.

When to Use:• The objective is to check for understanding and elaborate on a topic in greater depth.• The lesson involves complex material, such that frequent monitoring of students' learning is essential, mental elaboration of ideas is beneficial, or both.• Students are unlikely to elaborate spontaneously or to monitor their own comprehension effectively.Examples:• Ask questions that promote recall and review of the previous day's lesson.• Ask students for examples of how nonrenewable resources are recycled in their own community.

When to Use:• The objective is to learn new yet simple material, gain additional practice with familiar information and procedures, or relate classroom subject matter to the outside world.• The lesson involves a task that students can complete with little or no help from others.• Students have sufficient self-regulation skills to complete the task independently.Examples:• Have students read the next chapter in their health book and answer several questions about its content.• For a unit on migration, have students find out what state, province, or country their parents and grandparents were born in.

When to Use:• The objective is to learn knowledge or skills very well (perhaps to automaticity).• The lesson provides critical information or skills for later instructional units.• Students vary in the time they need to achieve mastery.Examples:• Have each student in instrumental music practice the C major scale until he or she can do so perfectly.• Have students practice 100 single-digit addition facts until they can answer all of the facts correctly within a 5-minute period.

When to Use:• The objective is to achieve greater conceptual understanding, acquire a multisided perspective of a topic, or both.• The lesson involves complex and possibly controversial issues.• Students have sufficient knowledge about the topic to offer informed ideas and opinions.Examples:• Ask students to discuss the ethical implications of Harry Truman's decision to drop an atomic bomb on Hiroshima.• Ask groups of four or five students to prepare arguments for an upcoming debate on the pros and cons of increasing the minimum wage.

When to Use:• The objective is to develop the ability to work cooperatively with others on academic tasks.• The lesson involves tasks that are too large or difficult for a single student to accomplish independently.• Students' cultural backgrounds emphasize cooperation rather than competition.Examples:• Have groups of two or three students work together on complex, multifaceted mathematical problems.• Have students in a Spanish class work in small groups to write and videotape a soap opera episode spoken entirely in Spanish.

When to Use:• The objective is to gain firsthand experience with a phenomenon.• The lesson involves information that can be correctly deduced from experimentation or other personal experience.• Students have enough knowledge to interpret findings correctly but may have trouble learning from strictly abstract material.Examples:• Ask students to find out what happens when two primary colors of paint (red and yellow, red and blue, or yellow and blue) are mixed together.• Conduct a simulation activity in which students discover firsthand how it feels to experience "taxation without representation."

When to Use:• The objective is to learn basic knowledge or skills.• The lesson contains material that can effectively be taught by students.• Students vary in their mastery of the material, yet even the most advanced can gain increased understanding by teaching it to someone else.Examples:• Have students work in pairs to test each other on their conjugations of irregular French verbs.• Have some students help others work through simple mathematical word problems.

When to Use:• The objective is to apply class material to real-world situations.• The lesson involves synthesizing and applying a variety of knowledge and skills.• Students have mastered the prerequisite knowledge and skills necessary to perform the task.Examples:• Have students construct maps of their local community, using appropriate symbols to convey direction, scale, and natural and man-made features.• Have students write a résumé using a word processing program.