Unit 2: Second-Wave Civilizations in World History

Cultural unity but political disunity: many empires rose and fell until Assyrian Empire overthrown by Neo-Babylonians (626-539 BCE). Mesopotamia remained center of the state until the rise of Persia

Founded by King Cyrus (559-530 BCE); defeated Neo-Babylonians in 539 BCE. Marks a regional power shift in the Middle East (from Tigris and Euphrates to highlands of Persia). Cyrus famous for fairness and moderation towards conquered people. Continued under grandson Darius I (522-436 BCE), marking beginning of the Achaemid Persian Empire. Had several royal cities, most important was Persepolis

Empire divided into 20 provinces, each ruled by a satrap Darius made royal road, became backbone of empire. Allowed for communication from one end of the empire to the other. Had standardized coins. Aramaic was official language, lingua franca of the Middle East. Meant to unify the empire.

Prophet Zoroaster is founder (aka Zarathustra) Main scripture: Avesta Dualistic: a good god and a bad god, eventually the good god will win. Big fire aspect as an agent of purification. Instead of burying dead, they were placed on towers of silence for the birds to eat (except for rulers who were buried in tombs)

Homeland of ancient Israelites; borders Egypt and Mediterranean (part of Fertile Crescent) First civilization to reject polytheism. Abraham was father of monotheism (rise of Judaism) c. 1000-922 BCE, David and Solomon united Hebrews into the Kingdom of Israel with Jerusalem as its capital. Golden age for the Hebrews. After death of Solomon, split into Israel and Judah. Assyrians conquered Israel and Babylon got Judah so the Hebrews left Palestine and lived in exile in Babylon (forced migration). This ended when Cyrus defeated Babylon and freed the Hebrews.

In the Levant (eastern cost of Mediterranean) Greatest traders of ancient world. Colonies and trade routes in the Mediterranean. Colonies in North Africa, Sicily, and some of Spain. Exported timber in exchange for silver from Spain and wine, olive oil, and slaves from other places Carthage (Tunisia) was a colony that became one of the most important cities in the Mediterranean. Had artificial port/harbor for people's boats. Later became independent (Carthaginian Empire). Developed world's first alphabet

Cradled by Aegean Sea (backwater of Mediterranean). Most lived very close to the sea. Greek peninsula was mountainous, causing political disunity but had a great civil life. Divided into small city-states known as polis; most of which were surrounded by a wall outside of which was a port. Had similar cultures due to a common sense of Greek identity based on their alphabet, gods, heroes, and Olympic Games (est. 776 BCE). Greeks made colonies to accommodate growing population because of the many mountains. Went as far as southern France and Spain; families with multiple sons had to send one to make colonies. Trade was important. Imported timber and wheat from Phoenicians and exported wine and olive oil. Good at art, especially literature. Epics of Homer very famous. Pioneers of drama (tragedy and comedy): Aeschylus, Euriphides, and Sophocles.

Sparta- in the Peleponese, most famous for heavily militarized society. Forced people to work land as virtual slaves known as helots. After Helot revolt, Sparta built up its military power. Had to be involved in military from 7-60, crushed personal identity. Athens-Spartan rival. Home of the world's first democracy. All citizens (free, adult males) could participate in the assembly and were expected to serve in government at some point in life. High officials random, 10 elected generals (no term limit). 60,000 of 350,000 could vote.

Polytheistic and disorganized Greeks stressed logic, rationalism, and empirical observation. Turned from religion and sought to understand things through natural law. Assumed two things: world was governed by laws, there was an order to it, and people can understand laws through logic

1. Socrates (470-399 BCE)- most famous for his going around polis and asking people questions about what makes a good life. Arrested and executed in 399 for corrupting the youth. 2. Plato (428-347 BCE)- student of Socrates; opened The Academy. Everything we know about Socrates comes from Plato's writings. Favorite literary form was dialogue. Believed that the world around us in only a shadow of the Forms (real world; allegory of the cave). 3. Aristotle (384-322 BCE)- student of Plato. Aristotle interested in natural world that can be explored with the five senses; father of scientific experiments (chicken embryo). Thought that by exploring world, he could reach the natural laws of the world. Had a geocentric view of the universe. Pioneer of logic and created syllogism. Wrote "Politics" and looked at different kinds of government. Hated democracy, loved slavery and patriarchy

Persian Wars (490 and 480 BCE)- Persians conquered Greek heartland to make it a part of Persian Empire. Greek city states came together to defeat the Persians, helped to solidify Greek identity Peloponesian War (431-404 BCE)- Sparta and Athens fought with their own allies. Sparta wins. Wars caused rise of the world's first historians: Heroditus and Thueydides, fathers of hisory. Tried to explain historical causation of the wars.

Challenged the Greek city-states which were weak after Peloponesian War. Royal dynasties of Macedon had rules for centuries. Macedon was somewhat Greek. King Phillip degeated all the city-states. Son Alexander the Great (reigned 336-323 BCE) took over and was tutored by Aristotle (shows how Macedon respected city-state culture) AtG sought revenge against Persia. He conquered Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Founded a new city on the delta of the Nile known as Alexandria and ended the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Stopped conquering when his troops had enough; died on a drinking binge. Macedon split into three kingdoms- absolute monarchies, Greek lingua franca of Hellenistic World and the educated classes of that area. Crown jewel was Alexandria (center of trade and culture) Euclid (c. 300 BCE)- mathematician, wrote The Elements (foundations of geometry) Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287-211 BCE)- calculated pi; figured out king's crown wasn't gold

Neighbored with Etruscans (north) and Greeks (south) Rome was a kingdom until king was overthrown and it became a republic (aristocracy). Had two consuls but foundation of power in the Senate who served for life. Dictators could be appointed for 6 months Rivaled with Carthaginian Empire; fought in the Punic Wars. Rome started first was in 264 BCE with no navy but built one and won. 2nd war: Hannibal entered Italy on elephants but lost. 3rd War (146 BCE): Rome destroyed Carthage. Rome conquered the Greeks but had respect for civilization, beginning Greco-Roman Civilization By 50 BCE, Rome controlled all Mediterranean directly or indirectly. Republic collapsed, causing civil war. Octavius took over and began Roman Empire and reamed himself Augustus Caesar. Rome at height from 27 BCE-180 CE (memorize!). Senate and consuls lost any real significance.

Conquered Britain in 43 CE; built Hadrian's wall to keep out the Scottish Maintained control through centralized government divided into provinces (like Persians and satraps) and Roman roads (more than the Persians). Thousands of miles of roads. Had roads and shipping routes. Known for aqueducts and public baths. Known for amphitheaters.

Romans used citizenship as a tool of gaining loyalty of the conquered elites Allowed for the rise of Christianity, Paul was able to travel and spread Jesus' teachings. Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and issued the Edict of Milan, officially tolerating Christianity and ending persecution. Christian monasticism took off, usually lived a life of asceticism. Most famous monk was Saint Anthony of Egypt. Extreme monks were stylites, lived on pillars for years. Female and male monks.

Zhou dynasty maintained its power through feudalism but system broke down and nobles ruled fiefdoms as it they were their own countries (Chinese Warring States Era, c. 500 BC).

During the Warring States Era Not really a religion, more of a set of political and ethical ideas. Brought together in the Analects. Identified 5 key relationships: 1)Ruler-Subject 2)Father-son 3)Husband-Wife 4)Older Brother-Younger Brother 5) Friend-Friend (only one that's not hierarchical) If everyone follows their role, everyone will live peacefully Key Idea: Filial Piety (reinforced by ancestor worship) Deeply patriarchal but men were supposed to be nice to women. Education was key to moral improvement

Founder: Loazi (may not have existed) Got their concepts from the Dao, believed that they should live in harmony with it. Like to use water as example because it was soft and powerful and unchanging. A Daoist ruler would essentially do nothing Scripture is Daodejing Confucianism and Daoism complemented each other. Daoism eventually became religious Daoism (gods, temples, and priests: a daoism for the people).

Believed that there needed to be strong and ruthless leaders with strict rules that kept people in place for fear of harsh punishment. King of Qin unified China by 221 BCE, required kings and royal families to move to capital as captives. Claimed Mandate of Heaven and began Qing Dynasty. Became the First Qin Emperor (aka Shi Huangdi or Qin Shihuang). Divided China into 36 provinces and had direct rule over them. Standardized weights, measures, axle lengths, coins, and Chines characters. Built 4,000 mils of new roads and built new irrigation canals and the Great Wall Xiongnu (Huns) frequently invaded China, main enemy of ancient China

Qin Emperor used forced labor, killing many people. Burned books that had ideas that opposed him (i.e. Confucianism). Died and buried in tomb with Terracotta Army Chinese revolted against Second Qin Emperor. Civil war until Liu Bang, a commoner, overthrew Qin and created the Han Dynasty. China expanded into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia

Instead of fighting Huns, they gave them presents and princesses. Adopted Confucianism as official ideology of dynasty. Continuities: required citizens to contribute labor. Han grew weak and China fell back into a period of disunity: had the rise of Shu, Wu, and Wei

Harrapan Civilization ended around 1700 BCE India rose in the Ganges River. Origins begin with migration of the Indo-Europeans (or Aryans) who migrated from Russia to all over Eurasia (why languages all across Eurasia are related). Came to northern India around 1500 BCE, never went to southern India. Native intermarried with Aryans to created a new hybrid culture. A major linguistic divide exists between Indo-European languages and Dravidian (south) languages Language was Sanskrit (India's Latin) Well connected by sea and land because of Eurasian trade routes. Flourishing trade between India (cotton, pepper, cinnamon, and spices) and Rome (gold and silver). Romans got silk from China through silk road (middle men in between). China, India, Rome, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia all connected through trade

No single founder, evolved as a part of ancient Indian society Holy scripture: the Vedas- four main Vedas, including the Rig Veda (c. 1200 BCE). Philosophical commentaries known as the Upanishads (c. 700-500 BCE). Believe that the universal soul, or Brahman, exists and our individual souls, or atman, will become part of it when we achieve moksha Believed in samsara; endless reincarnation, dependent on karma Most powerful gods were Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). Vishnu took on human form to create balance; has ten total avatars (human incarnations). Four castes: Brahmins (priests and teachers), Ksgatriya (warriors and rulers), Vaishya (farmers, merchants, and artisans) and the Shudra (unskilled laborers). Untouchables so low they had no caste Law of Manu said only weak semen made women and that female children should marry adult men

Arose around 6th Century CE because of Siddhartha Gautama (c. 500 BCE). Believed in reincarnation based on karma until you reached nirvana. Achieved through Noble Truths: 1. Life is full of suffering 2. The cause of all suffering is desire 3. The way to end suffering is to end desire 4. To end desire and gain enlightenment, follow the Eightfold Path Essentially an atheist religion; no gods or heaven, just samsara and nirvana Social Aspects: 1. Opposed the caste system and the authority of the Brahmins 2. Promoted monasticism and communal life 3. Welcomed women 4. Preached pacifism and non-violence

India's first great empire (opposite of China; c. 321 BCE). Emperor Ashoka the Great (268-233 BCE) started as a ruthless politician but became a Buddhist. Built a road network and sent out missionaries to spread Buddhism which spread to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and China thanks to traders and missionaries after Ashoka died and Mauryan Empire fell

Indian culture and Buddhism spread, causing hybrid cultures such as Greco-Buddhist art found in Afghanistan. Buddhism prominent in China as collapse of Han Dynasty. Chinese Buddhist monks such as Faxian traveled to India to study Buddhism to gain knowledge. Eventually became adopted as a 'Chinese' religion. Buddhism split into Theraveda (monks) and Mahayana Buddhism (common people). Believed in Boddhivistas (held off enlightenment to help others). China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan were Mahayana; Sri Lanka and South Asia were Thereaveda.

1. The Ramayana by Valmiki (c. 550 BCE)- one of India's most ancient epics; India's first poet 2. The Mahabharata (c. 400 BCE-400 CE)- a war epic with 18 volumes; author unknown. Most famous part was Bhagavad Gita: Krishna (Vishnu) appears to warrior Arjuna on eve of battle and opens his mind to the mysteries of the universe Both written in sanskrit

Golden-age of classical India (c. 320-c. 500 CE) Buddhism still flourished; Nalanda University was created and was India's greatest Buddhist center of learning Aryabhata (476-560 CE)- India's greatest mathematician; calculated pi, length of solar year, and that world was a sphere Kalidasa (c. 5th Century CE)- India's greatest dramatist (India's Shakespeare) Destroyed by the White Huns from Central Asia (c. 500 CE) After fall, Buddhism died out in India because Hinduism adapted to aspects of Buddhism. Hindus believed that Buddha was ninth avatar of Vishnu

Emerged in the Valley of Mexico (active volcanoes) 150 BCE- rise of cities, quickly became one of the largest cities in the Americas Great architecture and urban planning; built on a grid and was aligned with the stars and mountain range. Pyramids used as platforms or religious rituals and were decorated with elaborate art. Ruled groups directly and indirectly. Trade and commerce with the Mayan city-states. No access to transport animals of wheeled vehicles, limiting imperial rule. Height around 300-600 CE; ransacked and brought down in 650 CE by an unknown force

c. 200-800 CE Politically fragmented like Sumer and Greece; no democracy, just monarchy Had pyramids Developed own unique writing system and were god at astronomy. Had an in-depth calendar. A lot of trade within the city-states (salt, jade, cocoa, cotton, and more). Sea-based trade through wooden canoes. Collapsed abruptly and know one knows why (c. 800-950 CE) Descendants live in Mexico and Central America today

c. 900-200 BCE; inland in Central Andes highlands Focus of a religious movement and it had an interesting temple complex. Influenced surrounding Andean regions but it had no political influence on anyone Faded away; no one knows why After disappearance, Moche culture arose in same place; centered on numerous coastal river valley (irrigation very important). Politically fragmented; city-states had wealthy elites. Most famous for their art (sophisticated pottery that was life-like)

Agriculture developed in Eastern Woodlands c. 2000 BCE. Indian groups experimented by growing only certain seeds of plants (EAC- East Agricultural Complex). They grew squash, sunflowers, marsh elder, and goos foot. Not enough to develop an entire civilization off of. Semi-agricultural societies Adena and Hopewell (800 BCE-400 CE)- mound building societies in this area. Did not exist at same time. Mounds for tombs or ceremonial purposes