Proteins, Enzymes, DNA & Genetic Engineering

Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N) and usually Sulfur (S)

Amino acids

A compound with a Carbon linked to an Amino Group(-NH2) on one end, a Carboxol group (-COOH) on other end, a Hydrogen, and an "R" group (which is different in each amino acid. It makes each amino acid different from the other). *Draw it out!

Peptide bonds created by dehydration synthesis between the C ofthe carboxyl group of one amino acid and the N of the amino group of another amino acid

Dipeptide

Tripeptide

Polypeptide

3D shape of protein

-Disulfide bonds (S-S) of the cystine molecule-Hydrogen bonds between "R" groups on the amino acids in different parts of the amino acid chain.

-enzymes-anti bodies-protein receptors and protein carriers in the brain

The change in the 3D structure of a protein - By breaking the H-bonds and the S-S bonds - destroys the protein

1: temperature (high heat)2: pH (acid bases affect protein function)3: substitution of one amino acid for another -Example: in sickle cell anemia valine replaces glutamic acid in the hemoglobin area.4: Physical change -Example= whipping eggs

amino acids your body can't make, so you must eat them

Proteins that contain ALL 8 of the essencial amino acids -Example: Meat, fish

Proteins that do not contain ALL 8 essencial amino acids -Example: Peanuts, beans

They can give you all 8 of your essencail amino acids -Example: rice+beans, peanut butter+bread

When two things react with each other and as a result of their chemical bond forming H2O is relized

When two things are reacting and in order to break a bond an H2O must be added (for ex: to break down a dipeptide into 2 separate amino acids)

for recognition to identify cells to other cells and to target a cell for action by certain hormones; carrier proteins in the membrane allow and ions through their membrain

protection for infected agents

1: to speed up chemical reaction (lower activation energy required)2: not used in the reaction and not changed by it3: lock and key and induced fit models 4: substrate and enzyme physically fit together5: enzymes are very specific, different enzymes are required for different chemical reactions6:3D shape is crucial to enzyme function7: Coenzymes (often used as vitamins) are needed for many enzymes to function.

-Temperature -pH -concentration of substrate present.

Because there is such a wide variety of different proteins that u can make w 20 amino acids in different amounts, orders, and which as's u put in it

Alfred Hershy and Martha chase conducted an experimemnt where they took a virouse/barcteriophage (because only made up of protine and DNA.) They attempted to figure out whitch (DNA or protine) the bactriophage ingected into its host. The DNA was found to be the genetic material/hereditary material.

-Phospate group-sugar- dexyribose (ribose is the sugar in RNA)-Nitrogen bases- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine (uracil in RNA)

-Chargaff disscovers that amount of A is always = to the amount of T and the amount of G is always=to the amount of C-Rosalind Frankiln: Xray diffraction studies-Linus Pauling: 3D "experiment" in space (model buildings gave Watson and Crick their inspiration to build a model)

-sugar phosphate backbone with nitrogen bases facing inwards (rungs of ladder)-Complementory pairings (A pairs with T, G pairs with C)-base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds-each starnd of the double helix is a DNA polymore

-DNA unwinds: unzips at the hydrogen bonds between opposite base pairs-New DNA nucleotides base pair in along both strands- the 2 original strands are "templates" along which the new strands form-Edn up with two double helixs identiclr to the original*must make an exact copy

In the nucleus the cells machinery copies the gene sequance into mRNA (turns DNA template strand into mRNA)

Gene= The part of the DNA molecule that hold a unit of genetic information.

Chromasome= tightly coiled up DNA

DNA code controls protein synthesis, and proteins produced by protein synthesis control all characteristics of the cell. (Proteins do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs)

-riboes (NOT deoxyribose) sugar- Uracil (NOT Thymine)-It is single stranded (NOT a double helix)

mRNA forms off of the DNA template strand (original)

The protein making machinery called the ribosome reads the mRNA sequence and translates it into the amino acid sequence of the protein. The ribosome starts at the sequence AUG then reads three nucleotides at a time.Each three nucleotide codon specifies a particular amino acid.

The "stop codons (UAA, UAG, and UGA) tell the irbosome that the protine is compleat

-at the end of the tRNA -consists of bases that form H bonds opposite the codon on mRNA -amino acids atch onto the other end of the tRNA

The codons (3 nitrogen bases in a row) are read in pairs of three when being duplicated

Transcription: 1.Enzymes break the hydrogen bonds of DNA, into 2 separate strands2. mRNA forms on each strand by copying the genetic code (only difference is U instead of T).3. Then, mRNA exits nucleus and travels through cytoplams to RibosomeTranslation:1.

Once inside the Ribosome, mRNA is translated in triplets to the proper amino acids. (check here at 1:28 for more details! http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.

gen.proteinsynth/from-dna-to-protein/)Those Amino Acids connect through peptide bonds into a polypeptide chain.

-Additions: When one extra base is added to the DNA chain-Deletions: When a nucleotide is zapped out of the DNA*An addition or deletion at the beggining of the DNA starnd would disaster. It throws of the whole chain of clones.

However, it is fine if an addition or deletion apears at the end-Subsitutions: When one necleotide is subtracted and replaced with another*least trumatic, the chain is usualy still "legible"

-Kills less animals-can be produced at mass-Much quicker-Less side effects because it is from human cells and you are human

When a harmlesss virous is used to insurt the human gene into the cells of an individual who needs them

to cut, copy, and move parts of DNA

-Specilization- All cells have the same DNA but different parts are read in different cells

Different cells read different parts of the DNA