chapter 2-lifespan

a group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth.

a developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development

a grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior

a grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. describers the laws and processes by which behavior is learned

according to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. the word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time

the learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no specific meaning before conditioning

the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated)

a technique for conditioning behavior in which the behavior is followed by something desire, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person

an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitations of other people

the central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them

in social learning theory, the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves and effectively alter the social context

a grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. according to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

in cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and beliefs

the reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas

the reconstructing of old ideas to include new experiences

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

an emergent theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces

Vgotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by older and more skilled members of society

in sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area or zone, surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close to acquiring but cannot eye master without help

a theory that stresses the potential of all humans for goof and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background

the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. genes that enhance the survival and reproductive ability are selected over generations, to become more frequent

the approach taken by the most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory

a theory provides a framework of general principles to guide research and to explain observations.

each of the five major developmental theories--psychoanalytic, behaviorist, cognitive, sociocultural, and universal--interprets human development from a distinct perspective, and each provides guidance for understanding how human experiences and behaviors change over time theories are neither true nor false. they are not facts; they suggest hypotheses to be tested. good theories are practical: they aid inquiry, interpretation, and daily life.

psychoanalytic theory emphasizes that human actions and thoughts originate from unconscious impulses and childhood conflicts.

freud theorized that sexual urge arise during three stages of development--oral, anal, and phallic--and continue in latency and the genital stage erikson described psychosocial, not psychosexual, stages. he described eight successive stages of development, each involving a crisis as people mature within their context. societies, cultures, and family members respond to each person's development, affecting. the resolution of each crisis. all psychoanalytic theories stress the legacy of childhood.

conflicts associated with children's erotic impulses have a lasting impact on adult personality, according to Freud. Erikson thought that the resolution of each crisis impinges on adult development behaviorists, or learning theorists, believe that scientists should study observable and measurable behavior. behaviorism emphasizes conditioning--a lifelong learning process as reinforcement and punishment continue to guide behavior. social learning theory recognizes that people learn by observing others. children are particularly susceptible to social learning, but everyone learns to be more or less effective. ideally, individuals and communities recognize problems and then work to solve them without the defeatism of those who have learned to be helpless cognitive theorists believe that thoughts and beliefs powerfully affect attitudes, actions, and perceptions.

Piaget proposed four age-related periods of cognition, propelled by an active search for cognitive equilibrium. information processing focuses on each aspect of cognitive input, processing, and output

sociocultural theory explains human development in terms of the guidance, support, and structure provided by knowledgable members of the society, via culture and personal mentoring. Vgotsky described how learning occurs through social interactions, when mentors guide learners throughout their zone of proximal development the universal perspective focuses on the shared impulses and common needs of all humanity. one universal theory is humanism.

Maslow believed that all humans have 5 basic needs, which he arranged in sequence, beginning with survival and ending with self-actualization. Rogers believed that each person merits respect and appreciation, with unconditional positive regard.

psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, sociocultural, and universal theories have each aided our understanding of human development, yet no one theory is broad enough to describe the full complexity and diversity of human experience. most developmentalists are eclectic, drawing upon many theories