AP World History: Early Islam

Islam means "submission" became a global civilization through conquest and conversion, a "kingdom of faith," creating a loosely structured cultural and political empire

lived on Arabian peninsula, coexistent but not living with the Sasanid Persians or Byzantine Empire people pastoralists living in the "Empty Quarter" were isolated and independent agriculture and sea trade dominated in the south

had kin-related clan groups, organized into tribes survival meant dependence on and loyalty to the clan tribes governed by shaykhs, or sheiks, meaning "ruler" who was assisted by a council of elders

inter-clan rivalry due to struggles to control watering places, caravan trade routes and oases, and scarce pastureland clan feuds could last for hundreds of years

higher status than women in other empires at the time men were often in caravan trade, so women took on economic roles in the towns, some even managing trade activities in the towns not secluded or veiled commonly had "sister wives" due to polygamy

specialized trading elite developed, resulting in diminution of rights/prerogatives for women practices increasingly favored men - patrilineal tracing women increasingly unlikely to work in caravan trade

not much of it that endured did have a vibrant poetic tradition with bards telling stories of heroes, vendettas and rivalries, loyalties, and love oral due to no written language

combo of animism and polytheism, though some tribes recognized supremacy of particular gods like Allah spirits/gods also associated with night, sacred caves, water sources, groves of trees (stuff with relief from desert heat) Oases were important for caravan trade and often places of ritual practice and oracle guidance

in "Empty Quarter," nomadic pastoralists (Bedouins) provided camels, guides, and safe passage to merchants selling frankincense and myrrh southward caravans had manufactured goods

Camels contributed to rise of Arab-dominated caravan cities oxen and horses popular at first, but then camels and donkeys replaced them camels had saddles made of wooden frame which loads could be attached to, had a solid seat at top of camel's hump, giving a height advantage to rider

got to know about monotheistic religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism because of trade, which acted as a conduit for transmission of goods and ideas

kinship group known as the Quraysh settled here became a prosperous trade center site of religious shrines such as the Ka'ba and Zamzam, was still a pilgrimage site, and served as destination of hajj once Islam was established

born in 570 in Mecca, spent childhood in care of uncle (he was orphaned) engaged in trade and married a Quraysh widow, Khadija he later managed the family caravan trade at 40, he started meditating at night in the mountains during one of these, he claimed Jibra'il (Gabriel) gave him a message from Allah (god) in the cave of Hira on the mountain Jabal al-Nour

they were rhyming 1 one god 2 at end of time, souls would be judged and sins balanced against good deeds 3 blameless to paradise and sinful to hell 4 people should submit to the will of Allah, aka, be a Muslim, meaning "one who submits"

followers proclaimed him as the last messenger/prophet of God, and his revelations were more perfect than those of the Bible, charging Jews and Christians with being negligent in preserving God's word

political leaders saw him as a threat to their authority, persecuting many of his followers so, they fled Mecca in 622, settling in Medina. this year (hijra) marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar

sporadic war waged against Meccan nonbelievers result: Mecca surrendered to Medina in 628, and Muhammad and his followers made pilgrimage to the Ka'ba Medina rose to prominence, and Muhammad sent emmisaries throughout Arabia to spread Islam

religious and political leader, controlled much of the Arabian peninsula death in 632, his tomb under the green dome of the Mosque of the Prophet Abu Bakr (father of wife A'isha) as khalifa ('successor'), English version: caliph

1 monotheism transcended clan and class divisions 2 a religion distinctly Arab in origin 3 no intermediaries like saints and priests, creating egalitarianism in the faith 4 umma, "community of faith," could erase old tribal rivalries and disunity 5 ethical code and moral way of life and idea that rich should not exploit the poor

first of the Rashidun "rightly guided" caliphate Muhammad had made no provision for succession or for the purposes of an Islamic government, so Abu Bakr was chosen events: reconsolidated and expanded Muslim authority Bedouins challenged his rule reigned 632 to 634

1 one god 2 prayer five times a day facing Mecca 3 fasting during Ramadan 4 zakat - alms to poor and needy 5 pilgrimage to Mecca - the hajj

means 'recitation' revelations of Muhammad written down and organized into a book; the unalterable work of Allah compilation began in AB's reign and completed under Uthman, who believed without an official and uniform text, the religion would fall apart in dissention

institutionalized Islamic rule on the Arabian peninsula set sights on Mesopotamia, ruled by the Sasanids, and Byzantine Empire holdings in Syria declared jihad (holy war) against Syria Byzantines but died and could not carry it out; his death set off another power contest

second caliph of Rashidun caliphate ruled 634 to 644 was close to Muhammad English: Omar empire grew dramatically, taking much of Mesopotamia and parts of Persia, ending the Sasanid empire, also taking Egypt, North Africa, Palestine, Syria, and Armenia

assassinated by a Persion POW, likely a Zoroastrian Umar was buried as hero, an Islamic martyr taken down by an evil pagan

3rd Rashidun caliph, ruled 644 to 656, chosen in orderly manner expaned empire to Morocco, Pakistan, Armenia, and Azerbaijan sent envoy to China to proselytize, build a mosque, and plant the first seeds of Islam in East Asia envoy also sent to Sri Lanka

undertaken to promote trade and religion 5000 new mosques guest houses, like hotels, to accommodate visiting merchants many new marketplaces with overseeing market managers canals built and Jeddah was established as the port for Mecca

his focus on economic prosperity allowed a greater degree of political freedom, also allowing pre-Islamic tribal rivalries and jealousies to resurface 656- in Medina (imperial capital), and other provincial capitals, there was political unrest; military rebels returning from Egypt to Medina assassinated Uthman

political chaos ensued Ali, Muhammad's cousin was elected to be new caliph, but many people, including Muhammad's wife A'isha, opposed him Ali was assassinated five years later, and Mu'awiya, member of the Umayya clan, began the Umayyad Caliphate

Sunnis- consider leaders to be Imams, spiritual and community leaders; large majority Shi'ites/Shi'a- thought Ali was rightful successor, and chose the Imam as a descendant of Ali, though saw office of caliph as more secular than religious; dominant in Iran Kharijites/Shurat/Ibadi- believe any pious and able Muslim worthy of being leader, support right to revolt against those who deviate from Muhammad's example; very small minority

normally, conquests were political rather than religious in motive: political domination and to extract spoils/tribute in conquered clans conquests led by Arab warrior elite, dominated by the Umayyad clan no evidence for coherent missionary efforts or even a desire for widespread conversion to Islam

661-750 Mu'awiya, the first caliph, moved capital to Damascus, Syria they used an elite army of warriors and aristocratic administrators to expand to Spain, northwest Africa, Central Asia, and western India

mostly in Spain; Muslims were tolerant of other religions, as long as the adherents of the paid taxes- Jewish subjects actually thrived in C(o+')rdoba incursions into France were blocked by Charles Martel, "The Hammer", King of the Franks, and his army at the Battle of Tours/Poitiers

intermarriage not allowed between converts and "native" Muslims Mawali- converts- payed property taxes, though total nonbelievers had to pay jizya, the direct tax; converts were not considered full members of the umma Dhimmi- People of the Book- had to pay all taxes, but were looked upon with toleration

women could possess property and had inheritance, divorce, and remarriage rights as conquered cultures spread around, particularly in urban areas, practices like the veiling and seclusion of upper class women became common, and their occupational choices diminished, leaving most to home and family duties and some even to just life in harems

Islam allowed multiple marriages (polygamy) with up to four wives, only as long as the husband could support and treat them equally adultery was a serious sin harems- the wives' quarters, started to include concubines

aristocratic elites enjoyed decadent lifestyles in contrast to the simplistic ways of earlier times; they also shared little booty with the soldiers after conquest

Shi'ites and Kharijites launched rebellions the Abbasid faction, descendaents of al-Abbas, Muhammadd's uncle, became the chief rebel force Battle of River Zab- Abbasids defeated the forces of the Umayyad caliph Marwan II, toppling the Umayyad regime

Abd ar-Rahman, an Umayyad fleeing the Middle East to escape Abbasid wrath, escaped to Spain and founded the Caliphate of Cordoba in Iberia

750-1258 moved capital to Baghdad, establishing centralized and absolute rule like their Persian ancestors, they had ostentatious displays of wealth, including jewel-encrusted thrones and marble audience halls with royal executioners

religious/legal scholars--> interpreting of the Quran and Islamic law collecting sayings of Muhammad perfecting Arabic grammar translating great works of other civilizations -Note: all activities were facilitated with papermaking technology from China

converts (mawali) could be fully integrated into the umma - they were on equal footing with "native believers" some knew little about the religion- it was very easy to convert, no intricate processes needed they became exempt from the head tax many Persian converts occupied high level government positions there were affirmative efforts to win over nonbelievers

Conversion went hand-in-hand with this Some converts in areas with large non-Muslim populations migrated to growing urban centers with substantial Muslim populations and resources like mosques, schools, and hospitals

Islamic worship center rituals of Islam held here in fellowship with other Muslims Prayer: salat Qibla Wall: the wall facing Mecca schools were often attached to them

with the urban expansion came merchants and landlords with wealth and social status east-west trade was reinvigorated with the Tang and Song dynasties of China uniform coinage facilitated trade

dhows with triangular (lateen) sails traveled through the IOMS joint ventures became more common to finance long-distance trade in luxury items profits were reinvested back on land

ayn: landed aristocracy both those of hereditary wealth and the nouveaux riche (often soldiers returning with war spoils or merchants who accumulated large profits)

in the spirit of zakat (alms giving), large transfers of wealth were made to charitable enterprises primary beneficiaries: mosques, religious schools, rest houses for travelers, hospitals money used in building and maintenance

Craft-sellers: both government and private shops produced a mixed economy of many goods most artisans owned their own tools and were independent contractors, also owning their own shops some organized guild organizations to improve wages and working conditions, helping others in times of need

Islamic law allowed slavery, but not of other Muslims or "People of the Book" like Jews, Christians, and now including Zoroastrians. POWs were the exception Africa and Central Asia were major sources slaves could buy freedom and convert to Islam the offspring of slave women and Muslim men were born free

known as Shari'a (body of Islamic law) consists of hadiths (reports) of the words and deeds of Muhammad; only the most reliable were included covered religious, political, social, and private life

Arab conquerors were receptive and tolerant of ideas from long-established civilizations they encountered they even helped to preserve, copy, and spread the works of Greek and Hellenistic thinkers, keeping western tradition alive "Arabic" Numerals- actually the Indian system of numerals, including the concept of zero and the numbers 1 to 9, using a base-ten framework; Europeans coming into contacts with these numerals in the Arab world are who first called them "Arabic"- they would later be critical to scientific revolution in western Europe

religious architecture and geometric designs Mosques- domes, minarets, prayer halls, qibla walls, pulpits, open interior courtyards Mosaics- emphasized geometric designs and plant life

now truly a world religion North Africa to China madrasas (religious colleges) were built in urban areas to spread Islamic scholarship

mystic groups that traveled from city to city, creating an extensive Islamic religious organization teachings focused on union with Allah through song/dance rituals and training many urban men belonged to one

last centuries of the caliphate saw gradual political fragmentation and decentralization Why? - increasingly decadent and ostentatious displays of wealth, exactly why they had overthrown the Umayyads centuries earlier controlling an empire was hard, esp. on the frontiers, where news of revolt took two weeks to reach the capital, and the military response could take even longer

While the Abbasid caliphate declined politically... Islamic civilization reached new heights of creativity and expansion- the faith was carried to sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, and South and Southeast Asia the Islamic world became a conduit for the exchange of ideas

fifth Abbasid caliph (r. 786-809) heavily influenced by aristocratic Persian families enjoyed a lifestyle of extravagance, wealth, and opulence and had a reign characterized by palace intrigue his reign was detailed in "The Thousand and One Nights"

Persian became the official language of government, and also the language of most history and literature Arabic continued to be used for religion, law, and the natural sciences

peoples of the imperial frontiers had begun to establish local principalities states were being carved out of Abbasid territory -though they were not challenging Islam, which was already integrated into the local cultures, they did threaten the empire by reclaiming political/cultural independence

Growth of the Silk Road allowed the Samanid family to come to power. they declared independence for a region of much of Central Asia, establishing their capital at Bukhara They favored the Persian language written using Arabic letters

independent city-states of Sijilmasa and Tahert were formed, a major loss for the empire, as both were important along the trans-Saharan trade routes came from Berber revolt against Arab rule

909-1171 a Shi'ite family, claiming descent from Ali conquered northwest Africa (including Sijilmasa and Tahert), Egypt, Red Sea coast areas (including Mecca and Medina) and the Levant coastline up to Damascus capital- Fustat, later changed in name to Cairo Egypt was now a major Islamic cultural, political, and intellectual center!

distinctive Islamic culture, blending Roman, Germanic, Jewish, Arab, and Berber tradition came to be called Moorish culture, with the people known as Moors larger and richer than Christian cities in France and Western Europe

grew citrus fruits (and other stuff) using advanced irrigation techniques from the Middle East; the best agricultural economy in Europe Jews- some held important positions in finance, business, and gov't; there were even Jewish writers and thinkers working with Islamic scholars very tolerant they translated many Greek and Hellenistic works, preserving "western tradition"

945- they captured Baghdad, making the Abbasid caliphs mere puppets in their control ruled from the background until 1055 changed the title caliph to sultan, meaning "victorious"

Turkish ethnicity nomadic group from Central Asia 1055- captured Baghdad- Seljuk military leaders ruled from behind the scenes, leaving the Abbasids still as puppets staunch Sunnis who wanted to weed out all Shi'ite influence defended the empire from the Fatimids and gained access to much of Anatolia in battles won against the Byzantine Empire

They invaded Anatolia, placing political and religious pressure on the Christian Byzantine Empire to defend itself The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church had their differences, but this was a threat to both So, Byzantine Emperor Alexius I called on Pope Urban II for help in fighting off the Seljuk Turks

1095 The Pope called on bishops and nobles to orgainize a crusade to free the Holy Land and push back the Seljuk Turks- at the end, he sent out a general call to the knights and nobles of all of France; he knews they would participate to shore up their legitimaccy in a world of fading feudalism and increasing royal power threatening their own

200 years of off and on fighting for control of the Holy Land - to push back Muslim incursions - to spread Christianity - to attain political power - for personal enrichment with land and booty - to escape from personal/political problems back home - for adventure (after all, they didn't have much to do since feudalism was dying)

They were poor managers of their acquired empire: cities shrank as food supplies diminished (they were nomadic pastoralists and knew little about agriculture) irrigation works fell into disrepair tax revenues fell un-repaired damage from floods, fires, and civil disorders in Baghdad

major leader: Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse a bloody campaign from 1096 to 1099 -captured Jerusalem -massacred Muslim and Jewish residents of the city -established four Christian states: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem

Judaism- home of King David and where the Temple had stood Christianity- where Jesus had preached and died Islam- where Muhammad ascended to heaven for "night flights with Allah" center of many pilgrimages

1147-1149, called by Pope Eugene III triggered by the collapse of the County of Edessa goal: to defend gains of the first crusade and push the Muslims back even farther a failure that would eventually have the effect of uniting Middle Eastern Muslims

created a unified front against the Europeans a state based in Damascus emerged; they conquered the Fatimid Caliphate Saladin (aka Salah-ud-Din) was the head there is a drawing of him from an illuminated manuscript holding a globus (European kingly symbol)

recaptured all of the Crusader cities, including Jerusalem by siege in 1187 when he did this, he invited the Jews to return their

1189-1192 failed attempt to retake Jerusalem for Christendom non-English speaking King Richard I ("The Lionheart" and "Warriot King") of England, son of Henry II from the Plantagenet family and Ealeanor of Aquitaine made a treaty with Saladin that recognized Muslim political control of Jerusalem, but allowed pilgrimages their by unarmed Christians

1202-1204 went tragically awry Venetian merchants paid the Christians to sack and pillage the Byzantine capital of Constantinople-- great works of Byzantine art were carted off to Italy and Byzantine trade was demolished

after death of Saladin in 1193, fragmentation of his kingdom occurred Muslim reconquests continued until the last of the Christian states, Acrea, fell in 1291

unexpected cultural diffusion and enrichment for the Europeans more weakening of feudalism and increasing monarchical power and nationalism emergence of Europe from isolation; seeds of exploration planted trade in new and advanced products money economy developed in Europe science and technology Spread of Greek/Hellenistic/Roman cultures

bitter religious suspicion, hatred, and division between Muslims and Christians, the western Church and the eastern Church (schism embedded further), and Christians and Jews (crusaders taking out their religious fury against Jews in Europe in killings known as pogroms)

virtually dismembered; a shadow of its former self merchants of Venice controlled what was left of its commerce (access to sea and overland trade routes) so politically and militarily weakened that it would easily fall to the Turkish Empire's expansion

1200s Central Asian people under leadership of Genghis/Chinggis Khan (1162-1227)

1258 Hulegu Khan (Genghis' grandson) sacked Abbasid capital of Baghdad, bringing an end to this caliphate they defeated the Islamic Mamluks in Egypt and Syria Baghdad never recovered

through trade contacts, migrations, missionary work, and voluntary conversions to: South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa

Islam arrived through invasion by Umayyads in the 700s also through trade contacts and migration created religious clashes between Islam and Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism

Hinduism: open, tolerant, inclusive; had modulated and morphed into faith of diverse peoples with varying styles of worship and ideas about salvation and divinity; also had spiritual way of life and a social caste system based on inequalities Islam: much less flexible and adaptable; doctrinaire, proselytizing, and unabashedly monotheistic; promoted idea of equality of all souls

trade by sea over the Indian Ocean Maritime System (IOMS) with southern Arabian Peninsula connecting to mainly the west coast of India trade contacts strengthened the relations between the two places with two mercantile people

early: violent confrontations occurred later: incorporation of Hindus into Islamic government; division of cities to Hindu and Muslim sects; attempts to resolve or ameliorate differences and find common theological and cultural ground

in the Indus River Valley (the first place conquered) local officials could keep positions lighter taxation/fewer restrictions on trade religious tolerance: coexistence of mosques and Hindu temples treating Hindus, Buddhists, and Jainists as "People of the Book" respect of caste system and status of brahmans

Indian mathematics- Indian ("Arabic") numerals, the concept of zero, the decimal system Indian astronomy Indian medical doctors- to run hospitals back in Arabia Indian "alchemy" - forerunner to chemistry

bureaucratic monarchy idea palmistry Indian architecture, furniture, and flooring designs clothing styles musical instruments and melodies playing cards and chess

both Arab Muslims and imperial Romans were: cultural borrowers tolerant of other cultures aggressive expansionists promoters of trade and wealth

962: aggressive imperialism in northwest India by a Central Asian Muslim Turk dynasty from Afghanistan called the Ghaznavid dynasty (975-1187) Mahmud of Ghazni: third ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire; raided and looted, setting example for rulers of the next nearly 200 years

Ghurid Empire, successor state to the Ghaznavids conquered all of northern India Muhammad of Ghur moved capital to Delhi For 300 years, other Muslim dynasties ruled as "Sultans of Delhi"

were the entry points for Muslim migration because they served as centers for conversion Indus Valley (Pakistan)- from the Khyber and Bolan passes of the Hindu Kush and also from the Arabian Sea Bengal (Bangladesh)- through Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia

Migration- to urban centers with potential of large numbers of voluntary converts Trade- merchants in coastal and inland trade who brough Islamic culture Missionary Work- Sufi mystics who were similar to Hindu gurus and appealed to emotions

Sufi mystic centers were often centers of socialization for migrants and voluntary conversions; helped ordinary people through poselytizing- -magical and healing powers -clearing of fields for farming and forests for settlement -ecstatic song, music, and dance -led pilgrimages--> at death, their shrines were objects of pilgrimages! famous Sufi mystic: Khwaja Moinuddin Christi (1141-1230) of the Christi Order

mostly people with the following characteristics: -from large urban centers (Muslim entry points) through intermarriage -geographically bifurcated in east and west -from Buddhists (temples had fallen into disorganization and disrepair) or low-caste groups (to escape from despair and get the the egalitarian ethic of Islam)

Hindus aloof from their Muslim overlords Hindu and Muslim quarters established in cities with little social interaction between friendships across religious divide were very rare Where did Muslims fit in the caste system anyways?

Muslims adopted gender roles prevalent in Indian society, meaning a diminishing of status for Muslim women -Muslims marrying females at even lower age levels (9 years old!) -prohibitions against remarriage -sati- burning of widows

to deal with the threat of widespread conversion to Islam: -emphasis on cults of particular gods and goddesses that appealed to the emotions; Bhaktic (devotion) cults open to all, even women and untouchables; cult songs and poems in vernacular languages to make it easier to participate in singing, dancing, and chanting; favorite deities were Shiva and Vishnu, especially his incarnation as Krishna

Muslims were never able to win over large numbers of Indians to Islam India remained steadfastly Hindu today: 14% of Indians are Hindu It did, however, have dramatic influence in the political and social life of India

Had a much greater influence here than in India, particularly on the Malay Peninsula and the islands Arab sea traitors carried Islam to ports of Asia as part of the IOMS conversion here was peaceful and voluntary; converts blended their new faith with elements of pre-existing Buddhism, Hinduism, and animism

Sumatra, Borneo, and the Maylay Peninsula were integrated into the east-west trade of the IOMS exports from Southeast Asia: luxury goods, like aromatic woods and spices like clove, nutmeg, and mace as the volume of trade increased, Islamic political influence in India intensified, causing the inevitable expansion of Islam into the region

700s on - Muslim traders began to control eastward trade from the coast of INdia 1200s - ports in SE Asia became fully accessible to Muslim ships when a SE Asian trading cartel that controlled the Strait of Malacca collapsed; also, Sufi mystics started proselytizing and succeeding with conversions

northern coast of Sumatra across the Strait of Malacca to the Maylay Peninsula (Malaysia) -- the city of Malacca was a great breeding ground for Islam -- then along Maylay coast, across the strait againg, to eastern coast of Sumatra, to Java and then Borneo

Urban centers and trade were conduits for spread of Islam cities - large-scale conversions and sense of community when key trading cities were converted, it was in the best economic interest of the entire island and associated trading cities to convert also created links to the merchants and ports of India, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean

Bali- impervious to Islam; mainly Hindu Mainland SE Asia- mainly Buddhists, which was common among both the rulers and commoners

zealous proselytizers, establishing mosques and schools allowed islanders to retain their beliefs and practices that the ulama (Muslim scholars) found contrary to Islamic doctrine local law and customs used for social interactions Islamic law used for commercial matters

in an effort to win as many converts as possible, they tried to appeal to women too Muslim women here had a higher status within the family and society than other places -local and regional markets dominated by females -family lineage and inheritance rights through the female line

trade contacts, missionary work, economic interdependence combined to create an Islamic "perfect storm" now: SE Asia has one of the largest and most dense Muslim populations in the world- Indonesia now has the largest Muslim population in the world

earlier, Africa was on the periphery of major civilizations (except near Nile and in Carthage) trade and religious contacts with Islam brought Africa into a network of international commerce and belief systems

substantial in North African and along the upper east coast commercial activity in Sub-Saharan Africa too But - it did not lead to political unity or cultural homogeneity

from stateless societies organized around kinship ties and shared cultural characteristics to large, centralized states overall, a lack of political unity

based on common kinship and shared cultural traits councils of families to dispute resolution and allocation of societal resources no complex governmental institutions and no need for taxes West Africa - "secret societies" of men and women to check on the stability and state of the centralization of authority

cultural commonalities evident in language and religion language- Bantu-speaking peoples provided linguistic base for Sub-Saharan Africa; languages similar enough for effective communication across groups religion- animistic- belief in power of natural forces; rituals including dancing, drumming, divination, and sacrifice

provided a cosmology (view of how the universe worked) and a guide to ethics and behavior commonly had a creator deity and lesser deities or ancestral spirits ancestor veneration common as a source of fertility in the land, the working of which had both religious and economic significance

Egypt/Nubia- the Copts were a minority religious community at Alexandria; in Nubia, it survived the Islamic invasion of the region, though in Egypt, not so much Ethiopia- state of Axum, tracing origins to biblical marriage of Solomon and Sheba; dominant religion here today

North Africa- became fully integrated into the Mediterranean and Arabic commercial networks Sub-Saharan Africa- economies varied from one region to another; agriculture and iron-working were common industries; Nubian traders were intermediaries for this region and Egypt

Markets with male and female merchants Control of trade by Merchant Kinship Groups (cartels) designed to keep prices high and restrict competition Gradually Developing cross-regional trade with increasing Arabic contacts

640-700 Muhammad's followers brought the message of Islam as well as trade opportunities to North Africa, where they found fertile ground in the west (Maghrib) and the east (Ifriqiya) By the mid-700s, conversions were rapidly and voluntarily taking place, caused by trade and possibility of political unity under the Abbasid Caliphate

nomadic Saharan traders established rival trading cities at Fez and Sijilmasa over time, some became Islamic fundamentalists, and supported its expansion west and south into the savannas trans-Saharan north-south trade routes were set up, later bringing Islam to West Africa; also, they crossed Strait of Gibraltar to bring Islam to Spain

1 equality before Allah- egalitarian society 2 African leaders saw Islam as way of uniting political and religious authority 3 prospect of structure and unity 4 trade!!!

point of entry into Sub-Saharan Africa was the Sahel, a savanna/treeless grassland states formed along the Sahel as intermediaries in north-south trans-Saharan trade, like Ghana

one of those states (see previous card) that traded in gold for salt, dates, and other goods from the north as early as the 200s 900s- the rulers converted to Islam Islam used to reinforce the kingship, considered sacred/divine, so "ruler cults" developed, though relatively few subjects converted contemporary states: Gao and Takrur successor states: Mali and Songhay

sudanic: from "sudd," meaning "swamp" ruled by a patriarch or council of elders from a kinship group, often based around the dominant ethnicity "mini-empires"

a model of Muslim sudanic rule 1200s - decline of Ghana, a kinship group broke away and ruled until 1433, when it fell to Berber raiders had mosques and public prayers, though sermons often extolled the kings' virtues and urged loyalty and support ruled by a "mansa" (emperor) and also had assembly to check on the mansa's power and pick his successor trade- based on agriculture; Mali merchant = "juula" - they formed many joint partnerships; around all of W Africa

the "Lion Prince" ; an emperor/mansa who unified the Mali state (1230) oral historians, called "griots," described the basic orders of society: 16 free clans of merchants and traders who carried bows and quivers (bearing arms) as a status symbol 5 for religious duties 4 for artisans and intellectuals

Sundiata made safe passage along the trade routes a high government priority, stationing garrisons of soldiers and severely punishing those who committed crimes against travelers or traders Ibn Battuta wrote about this in his masterpiece of Islamic literature/window into Muslim societies that is the Rihla

from the Atlantic Ocean to Gao and Timbuktu- an intellectual and spiritual center with a madrasa (Islamic university) mansas promoted trade, giving wealth to the state extravagant and worldly imperial courts

r 1312 -1337 made pilgrimage to Mecca that drew the Islamic world's attention; brought back a man named Ishak al-Sahili, poet and architect, who later designed the mosque architecture based on unique beaten clay traditions. EX: mosque at Jenn(e with an accent mark) Abraham Cresques drew him on a map

village farmers were 80% of the population farming was difficult b/c of sandy and shallow soil- only hoes could be used crops: rice (river valleys), millet, wheat, sorghum, fruits, and vegetables farms: small and family owned; polygamy was common so there could be more hands to do the work

started in the 1370s took shape along the great bend of the Niger River Gao (capital) and Timbuktu were major cities rulers were Islamic, but majority of people followed tribal religions Sunni Ali (r 1464-1492) was the first real emperor

Sunni Ali - ruthless leader, expanded by force from Gao, armies captured Timbuktu (a city that resisted until he persecuted the Muslim scholars there) and Jenne, also setting up centralized provincial administration systems allowing for little self-determination military-trained Muslim leaders followed, but Askia Muhammad (r 1493-1528) expanded the empire to its greatest extent

strict interpretation of Islam concerned by local practices and customs that had corrupted the religion before used Islam to create uniformity and political control shunned unveiled females and women involved in trade

1591- a musket-equipped army from Morocco defeated Songhay's armies Hausa kingdoms came to dominate, especially in Nigeria: these kingdoms went back to combining Islam with local practices and customs

Islam spread through networks of trade and nomadic contact Muslim traders, herders, political leaders, and imams were minority, even where no Islamic states had arisen Muslim influence varied widely by area

Women- matrilineal tracing; mostly unveiled, some having same occupation as men; they socialized with men (to the dismay of Muslim purists) Slaves- African slaves (tribal blacks) became widely diffused and accepted; women (concubines) and children (eunuchs) in slavery are evidence for notions of cultural superiority

Indian Ocean trade from monsoon winds gave rise to trading cities on Africa's eastern coast, from the horn of Africa (Somalia) to Mozambique; Arabs called the region "Zenj" maritime contacts resulted in a mixture of Islam and local beliefs and practices

Bantu- Bantu-language migration, with these people mixing with older populations; Swahili "coastal"- language based on Bantu with large amount of Arabic influence to Madagascar- from Southeast Asia!!!- brought Austronesian languages, bananas, and coconuts to Africa

ruled by Muslim families living in palaces of cut stone and coral; many mosques famous seaports: Mogadishu, Mombasa, Zanzibar "Stone Town," Kilwa, Sofala (primary port for gold and slaves) exports- ivory, gold, iron, slaves, exotic animals imports- silks and porcelain traders- from Arabia, Persia, and India, later Chinese who sailed directly to E Africa on ships

class-based religion with Muslim rulers and merchants and non-Muslim villagers believing in old beliefs and cultures class-based language: common people- Swahili ; ruling families- Arabic

1498- Vasco da Gama Portuguese explorers and traders raided Kilwa and Mombasa, conquered Sofala, took control of Zimbabwean gold trade; later established trading posts ivory became main trading item, along with slaves

major in the north, west, and east mostly, Islam blended with local traditions, practices, customs, and tribal belief systems, showing flexibility in the internal divisions of Islam, Sunnis prevailed, though Shi'ites and Kharajites were also present