This essay discusses the core characteristics of hypnosis, concentrating on its major psychological and physical features. It begins by providing a background of the practice. This is important because it draws out how the understanding and definition of hypnosis has changed over time. This is followed by a section considering the psychological and physical aspects of hypnosis, after which the final section discusses the importance of relaxation in hypnotherapy. Hypnosis is defined loosely as an altered mental state, superficially resembling sleep, characterised by a heightened awareness of subconscious detail (Brink 2008; Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004). This definition will be developed and expanded in greater detail throughout the essay.
A full understanding of hypnosis and hypnotherapy requires that the practices are placed in their historical and cultural context. What is now known as hypnosis has been recorded on many occasions throughout history, dating back several millennia to the civilisations of ancient Egypt, Rome, and Greece. It was typically performed as part of shamanistic, religious or spiritual rituals (Brink 2008; Waterfield 2004).
However, there is some scepticism regarding the veracity of these historical accounts (e.g., Waterfield 2004). Hypnosis in its modern Western form was first practiced by Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815), who was an Austrian physician. Mesmer understood it through the theoretical lens of ‘animal magnetism’ or ‘mesmerism’, which was related to the idea that health was contingent on the distribution of ‘universal fluids’. He believed that magnets could be used to direct these fluids, prevent blockages and ultimately cure disease; hypnosis worked similarly in Mesmer’s eyes in that it was able to transmit healing forces and produce cures (Waterfield 2004).
This notion was developed following Mesmer’s death by Armand de Puysegur, who realised that dictation and verbal communication in the form of commands could induce trances (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). The theoretical groundwork laid by Mesmer and Puysegur was revised in the 19th century by James Braid (1795-1860), who realised that trance-like states could be brought on by suggestions as well as commands. Braid also redefined the practice, calling it ‘hypnotism’. The process began to gradually gain wider acceptance as a therapeutic agent, especially useful in the relief of pain and as an anaesthetic (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). The future of what is now known as hypnotherapy was secured in 1892 when the British Medical Association (BMA) commissioned a report on the characteristics of hypnosis for medical purposes, which yielded highly promising results (Waterfield 2004).
Hypnosis and hypnotherapy were gradually refined and developed as new fields took interest and various schools of thought branched off in opposing directions, most notably in France. One of the most important developments was the relationship between Sigmund Freud and hypnosis, and it was this that saw the now crucial introduction of the theory of the unconscious mind into the practice (Waterfield 2004). Freud’s disenchantment with hypnosis in favour of psychoanalysis saw a decline in its popularity, although there was a revival after the 1950s when research unearthed a variety of new applications (Waterfield 2004). The work of Milton Erickson (1901-1980) was crucial in this respect. He built on Freud’s introduction of subconscious elements, and his success was essential in the creating the practice in its current form (Waterfield 2004).
This provides an important backdrop in understanding what hypnosis actually is. It is useful at this stage to dispel a misconception, namely that hypnosis is a form of unconsciousness comparable to sleep. As shall be demonstrated, subjects are actually awake and capable of high levels of awareness, albeit not of the environment. It is more accurately described as a state of physical relaxation, including an altered state of consciousness in which the subconscious mind is more accessible and more active (Mason 2008, cited in Segi 2012: 27).
In terms of its psychological characteristics, hypnosis can be described as natural, trancelike state. It is generally agreed that while under hypnosis a person has a heightened sense of focus or concentration, usually directed towards a specific object or memory, which entails an ability to block out distractions from outside (Segi 2012; Hadley and Staudacher 1996).
One of the key psychological aspects of hypnosis is related to the subconscious mind, which in some shape or form is responsible for automatic and intuitive mental functions (Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). Since it has no clear location in the brain the subconscious can seem rather elusive, but it can be seen in many day-today tasks, such as typing, writing, or catching a ball. Driving is among the most oft-cited examples of subconscious functioning; it is common to internalise routes and to navigate while performing automatic processes such as changing gear without any memory of it. Tasks such as these can be carried out almost unknowingly and details often go largely unremembered (Brink 2008). Thus, the subconscious is highly active on a continuous basis. Hypnosis involves putting an individual in touch with the subconscious through intense concentration. It was previously thought that this was actually a kind of unconsciousness; however, as Hadley and Staudacher (1978) show, this view has come in for revision and new research has shown that a hypnotised person is fully awake and extremely focused; the appearance of unconsciousness arises because attention is diverted away from peripheral stimuli (Spiegel 1978). This is an important psychological and physical characteristic of hypnosis.
One of the main psychological aspects of hypnosis is an increased susceptibility to suggestion (Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). The subject generally heeds only the suggestions of the hypnotist, and this appears to be done in ‘an uncritical, automatic fashion, ignoring all aspects of the environment…He sees, feels, smells, and otherwise perceives in accordance with the hypnotist’s suggestions, even though these suggestions may be in apparent contradiction to the stimuli that impinge upon him’ (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004: 1). Moreover, the susceptibility to suggestion may be extended such that the subject is still under the ‘control’ of the hypnotist during ordinary, ‘waking’ activity (Heap and Dryden 1991).
In terms of its physical aspects, hypnosis has several distinctive characteristics. In the first stage of the process, the subject’s body becomes extremely relaxed (this will be discussed further in the section on relaxation), which initiates a series of other physical changes. The heart rate, for example, slows considerably and with it the rate of breathing grows deeper and more rhythmic. As suggested earlier, this is not to be confused with deep sleep, which is characterised by a lack of awareness to external stimuli; rather it is a hypnotic trance in which the subject is highly attentive at all times. In fact, it is often argued that a hypnotic trance brings about a greater level of sensitivity to stimuli than usual (Karle and Boy 1987).
This intense period of focus manifests in a physical change in the nature of brain activity. Physical evidence for this fact was first produced in 1929 when Hans Berger tested the brain activity of a hypnotised subject using the process of electroencephalography (the device is called an electroencephalogram or EEG) (Karle and Boy 1987). This measures electrical activity in the brain as waves. In order to understand the physical changes associated with hypnosis, it is necessary to briefly describe the four different kinds of brain waves: alpha, beta, theta, and delta. Under ordinary circumstances, mental activity produces beta waves. A heightened sense of relaxation creates more alpha waves; this state might be described as ‘light hypnosis’. As the body becomes increasingly relaxed, theta waves become dominant. This is associated with dreaming, or medium to deep hypnosis, as well as greater engagement with the subconscious. Finally, during periods of very deep hypnosis the mind produces delta waves. These have an extremely low frequency and are usually created entirely by the subconscious, as during hypnosis or dreamless sleep (Brink 2008).
In terms of underlying brain activity, therefore, the process of hypnosis initiates a transition that begins with beta waves and progresses through alpha, theta, and finally delta waves. Conversely, when a subject is brought out of hypnosis, or awakes from a deep, dreamless sleep, the stages of electrical activity in the brain are reversed, beginning with delta and ending with beta (Brink 2008).
It is difficult to understand the nature of hypnosis, both psychologically and physically, without an appreciation of the tools and methods employed by a hypnotist. The inducement into a trance-like state is achieved through relaxation techniques as part of a process called ‘induction’ (Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). This can take different forms depending on the particular therapist, but the result is always broadly similar: a state of heightened focus on one or more specific and internal factors, and a decline in awareness of environmental or external stimuli (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). This is induced through verbal cues or instructions designed to induce a trance (Karle and Boys 1987). However, there is considerable variation in terms of the form this takes. Many therapists use authoritative commands, such as ‘you are now feeling relaxed’, or ‘I want you to picture yourself…’; Alternatively, others employ a more suggestive style, including statements such as ‘maybe you would like to…’. While the details vary, however, all methods of induction tend to be characterised by a slow, clear prose style (Karle and Boys 1987).
It is important to have an appreciation of the methods used to induce hypnosis as it is the essential precursor to the psychological and physical changes discussed in the first part of this essay. It is likewise crucial to understand the role of relaxation in hypnotherapy, as this is not only a crucial characteristic of the state itself but also the nexus between the beginning of the process and the transition into a hypnotic trance (Segi 2012).
Hypnosis can only be achieved if the subject is sufficiently relaxed to disengage the conscious mind and engage the subconscious. This leaves an opening for suggestion and behavioural change, which are crucial components of hypnotherapy. In ordinary parlance, relaxation does not refer to the state necessary to induce a hypnotic trance but rather to the absence of strenuous mental or physical stimuli (Brink 2008). Thus, a person might be said to be relaxing on the sofa while reading a book. In actual fact, the conscious mind is still highly active at this stage, which precludes the opening up of the subconscious. Successful hypnotherapy requires a more ‘complete’ sense of physical and mental relaxation, including the alleviation of all forms of stress. There are various techniques involved here, but one of the most common is called Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) (Brink 2008). This works by instructing the subject to systematically relax various areas of their body independently and in stages, often focusing on muscle groups. This can also be achieved via ‘self-hypnosis’, and for many people is an important part of stress- or sleep-management strategies (Segi 2012; Brink 2008). The ability of hypnosis to induce this kind of state is one of its most unique qualities, and even if nothing else is achieved the mere process of compete relaxation is an important component of hypnotherapy (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). One thing to note is that complete relaxation of this kind is not artificial or unnatural. It is part of the ordinary human condition, and the role of hypnotherapy is simply to induce it under controlled circumstances and with a particular goal in mind (Robertson 2012; Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996).
This essay has discussed some of the competing historical notions of what hypnosis is, as well as the way it is understood by modern practitioners and theorists. Both the process of hypnosis and the practice of hypnotherapy have undergone considerable change in terms of the way they are understood. This has led up to the modern theory of hypnosis as a state of relaxation and increased accessibility to the subconscious. The crucial relationship between relaxation and hypnotherapy (and hypnosis) has been drawn out. Undoubtedly, the important role of hypnosis historically is matched today, and it can be seen as a major part of many rituals, medical procedures, leisure activities, sports, and entertainment (Segi 2012).
ReferencesBrink, T. L. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH13.pdf [Retrieved 18/05/2014]
Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004) Hypnosis http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/279820/hypnosis [Recovered 18/05/2014]
Hadley, J. and Staudacher, C. (1996) Hypnosis for Change, New Harbinger Publications
Heap, M. and Dryden, W. (1991) Hypnotherapy: a Handbook. Berkshire: Open University Press
Karle, H. and Boys, J. (1987) Hypnotherapy a Practical Handbook, London: Free Association Books
Kirsch, I. (1994) Clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo: Empirically derived techniques, The American journal of clinical hypnosis 37 (2), pp. 95–106
Robertson, D (2012) The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioural Hypnotherapy: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Hypnosis, London: Karnac
Segi, S. (2012) Hypnosis for pain management, anxiety and behavioral disorders. Factiva. [Retrieved 18/05/2014]
Spiegel, H. and Spiegel, D. (1978) Trance and Treatment, Basic Books Inc., New York
Waterfield, R. (2004) Hidden Depths The Story of Hypnosis, London: Pan Books.
