The Social Role of Poetry in China DRP.
Align Bi School of Languages Cultures and Linguistics Monish University Australia Abstract Chinese poetry is closely associated with the Confucian notion that literature is primarily informative and didactic, serving a social and moral purpose, as reflected in the proverbial saying "shih yang chi" [poetry expresses intent].In the early twentieth century, Chinese vernacular poetry emerged as a crucial part of Chinese intellectuals' elaborate efforts to meet the enormous challenge of combining the external imperatives of national salvation with the internal prerequisites of enlightenment. Anti-traditionalism was a principal notion in this genre's formative period. This paper considers the social role of poetry in China.
It argues that the quest for emancipation from the traditional ethics of subordination and submissiveness is manifest in modern Chinese poetry, but this genre does not completely depart from tradition.Key words: Chinese poetry, moral education, social role of literature 1 . Introduction Traditionally, poetry and formal essays were assigned to the highest literary genres because they were supposed to be the only serious conveyors of the doctrines and moral principles of the Confucian sages. On the other hand, other genres like fiction and drama were excluded from the elite canon because they were doggedly considered merely for entertainment with no didactic value, despite the fact that most of them expressed strong veiled ideological messages.When China faced the degeneration of her traditional heritage and a cultural predicament in the early twentieth century, youth represented the new vigor for a revivalists China.
Attempting to strengthen China's global position through enlightenment and education, leading figures of a New Culture Movement (awakening young) brought out new vernacular poetry for the purposes of educating the young and celebrating youth. A shift in values accompanied the advent of revolutionary beliefs. In Mayo's China, poetry became a tool to propagate a singular assist ideology.A large amount of verses were closely linked with various political campaigns and movements.
After Mayo's death, a small group of young poets took a quite radical turn, characterized by n anti-establishment stance, challenging both the Confucian and Communist authority in their works. This paper focuses on these changes, examining three distinctive periods: the May Fourth era in the early twentieth century; Mayo's socialist phase from 1949 to 1976; and the post-Mao ?new real from 1976 to 1989. These changes have to be understood in China's historical and socio-cultural contexts. .
May Fourth era The high status of poetry was undermined by political, social and educational changes in the late Sing and early Republican periods. However, from 1918 onwards, allowing Huh Shih's lead, many supporters of the language reform movement started experimenting with writing verses in the new vernacular, and the revival in poetry saw this genre once again become an important source of moral cultivation. Like many other genres in modern Chinese literature, the new poetry was written in a style much more accessible to young readers than the traditional verses.They were generally short and intended for recitation. More so than fiction stories, which played an important role in attacking the old thought, old ethics, old values and foreign imperialism as well as examining and analyzing specific social problems, the new poetry was particularly capable of cultivating new virtues, establishing new values, sketching out new dreams, and setting up ideals.
52 The Special Issue on Contemporary Issues in Social Science O Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA www. Jennets. Mom In the traditional Chinese society dominated by the Confucian ethics and values, intellectuals were ?superior men] Nuncio), and they were role models, and had the absolute moral authority, responsible to Heaven (Fang & B', 2013). Despite the attacks munched in the early twentieth century by young intellectuals of Western education background against the traditional literati elitism, the concept of the leading role of intellectuals in society was so deeply rooted that most Chinese still regarded their moral credence immutable.In a rapid changing world, these Western influenced intellectuals were further entrenched as the embodiment of enlightenment.
The power of the contributors to early vernacular poetry over readers became even more overwhelming, because these people were among those known as the leading literary usuries, the best philosophers and greatest scholars of that time, founders and leaders of political parties and, most significantly, the profoundest thinkers of all time in China.Almost unanimously shared by all the leading May Fourth poets was the advocating of the emancipation of the individual from the repression of the traditional forces, singing the praises of freedom and glorification of life and human values 2012). However, beneath this unanimity, there is a wide divergence in opinion on the issue of socio-political relevance. Many texts reflect their authors' faith n a progressive evolutionary premise and the social function of literature.Additionally, along with these intentions, some poets tactfully publicized their response to the apocalyptic message of the Russian Bolshevik Revolution as a cosmic act of mass liberation. Viewed in the historical and intellectual context, the texts by May Fourth leading literary figures all epitomes their own political and moral ideals and their dreams for the future of the nation.
What is more striking is the power of the imagery of youth, revitalization and freedom from corruption in contributing to a ?New Culture Movement" in a society that had glorified an awesome antiquity throughout dynastic history.Patriotism is exemplified in these works by the call to arouse the general population, which is often typified as numb, ignorant and indifferent, and unaware of the national crises. These works implicitly affirm the traditional Confucian notion of elitism, which integrates knowledge with social responsibility of educated people, but in a way, it is also a chronological reversal of Confucianism, because these poets esteemed youth over age and innovation over the established authority. In these verses, Chinese youth were to lead and educate their elders.In the context of the very low literacy level of that period, those able to read at all would be regarded as educated, and these poems would remind these readers that it was their moral obligation to conduct patriotic education services to the masses. To awaken the general population and alert them to the danger of being ruled by the foreign imperialism is one of the key messages of the explicit patriotic poetry, in which it is the young who were passionately engaged in the battle to rescue the nation from its agony as the victim of foreign imperialism.
Although they all agreed, despite their ideological differences, that Gouge [national salvation] depended first and foremost on a commitment to Juicer [the salvation of the people] from the traditional morality. In the course of the development, advocates of enlightenment had to constantly ally themselves with those who regarded national salvation as the most urgent. Xx Shim's poem duly reflects the complexity of emotions of youth about their never-ending pursuit of truth and love in this perplexing era: I don't know, Which direction the wind is blowing - I am in a dream, Her tenderness, my fascination.I don't know, Sweetness is the glory of the dream. Her betrayal, my depression. 53 Heartbreaking in the gloom of the dream.
Dimness is the glory of the dream. (Xx Zoom, 1928)1 The increasing revolutionary ratifications was intensified in the sass when many young writers gathered in Shanghai. They were attracted to the most industrialized city in China because its ?foreign concessions] offered them some freedom to express their dissenting views against the Nationalist (KM) government.As these young writers gradually committed themselves to a leftist position, they began to haft their focus from their own personal experience and individual views to ideological and revolutionary themes. Revolutionary verses, like Confucian children's books, used art and literature as an instrument for moral and social persuasion and ideological indoctrination. Contrastingly, they were used as a political weapon aiming at radical social change rather than social harmony promoted by Confucianism, as well as social equality through armed struggle rather than the Confucian notion of maintaining a social hierarchy through obedience.
Their audiences were the poor and disadvantaged, not the elite. The child was a steel soldier of the future, molded sternly for a revolutionary purpose, and was always ready to be told what ought to be done for a new China. 3. Mayo's socialist phase Unfortunately, when a ?new China] was finally established with the Communist victory in 1949, Moist cultural guidelines alone governed and controlled literature to propagate a singular assist ideology.A large amount of verses were closely linked with various political campaigns and movements. Their main purpose was not necessarily to educate the young politically or morally, but to mobiles the whole population to engage in these movements.
As part of the propaganda work, these publications encouraged children's involvement in various campaigns and movements, and their involvement would help promote the manifestation of the whole nation. Many songs, poems, short stories, and short plays were hastily produced in large quantity.They were usually of poor quality, often likened to a tide, as after a while, they disappeared completely. Repetition was also common. Before a first campaign was completed, the next one had already commenced.
These works were designed for embroiling the whole nation, including children, and some of them were eater used in Chinese language readers for children. The following are some examples of the three main campaigns in the sass: 3. 1 . Resisting U. S.
A. ND Assisting Korea Valiant and high-spirited we cross the Yell River to maintain peace and defend the motherland That is the way to safeguard our hometown The fine sons and daughters of China Be united with one heart to resist America and assist Korea We are determined to defeat America who is like a cruel-hearted wolf 2 There were many songs of the same theme known to almost every Chinese citizen in those years. The best-known ones were from feature movies, Shank Gang Ridge and Heroic Sons and Daughters. 2 The English translation is taken from http://library. Thinkers.
Org/CACHE 522/English/ poem. HP? Id=7 Unary 29, 2013). Author unknown, quoted in primary school reader, Yemen, Volvo. 4, Rennin Jiao chubbiness, Beijing, 1964, p.
85. 54 3. 2. Eliminating the Four Pests The scab-head suffers a lot in June Flies like to land on it and mosquitoes like to bite it The people's commune now calls on us to kill ? the four pests That is a very important task The scab-head doesn't have to worry any more The four pests were identified as mice, sparrows, flies and mosquitoes in the erectile issued by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (ICP) in January 1958 (Lie Ixia, 1994, 24).Later, the Chinese authorities attempted to rewrite this part of history by replacing ?sparrows] with ?bed bugs] as one of the four pests, because of the disastrous consequence of eliminating sparrows, which upset the ecological balance and enabled crop-eating insects to proliferate.
3. 3. The Great Leap Forward (three poems) We don't need oil for a light We don't need oxen for a plough Fruit falls in our lap Fish leap into our net Under the great red flag We are the masters of our futureThe flower that I want to wear is a big red flower The horse that I want to ride is capable of running a thousand lie a day The song that I want to sing is the song of the Great Leap Forward The words that I want to hear are the words of the Parity The people's commune is like a ship The east wind impels the sails of the ship We have Chairman Mao to steer our ship to ride the wind and weather the storm going straight forward 6 3. 4.
Cultural Revolution In the so-called Cultural Revolution, singing ?The East is Red], ?Sailing the Sea Depends upon the Helmsman] and ?To Wish Chairman Mao an Eternal Life became part of daily-enacted rituals, performed in the morning before work or study commenced or before the opening of a meeting. The East is Red The East is red, the sun is rising, Mao Sedona appears out of China, He brings great happiness among us, He is our great savior...
The Communist Party is like the sun, Wherever it touches, it brings light. Wherever there is a Communist Party There shall be liberated people. 7 3 Author unknown and untitled. This translation is based on the recollection of Ghana Deed, whom I interviewed on January 24, 2007, in Shanghai. The interview was tape recorded.
4 Deed, pop. Cit. Author unknown, quoted in primary school reader, Yemen, pop. Cit.
, p. 15. 6 Author unknown, quoted in primary school reader, Yemen, pop. It. , p. 16.
7 The English translation is taken from Fang Shanghais and Hay, T. , East Wind, West Wind, up. 97-98. 55 Sailing the Sea Depends upon the Helmsman Sailing the sea depends upon the helmsman Everything growth depends upon the sun Rain and dew nurture the healthy rice seedlings Making revolution depends upon Mao Sedona Thought Fish cannot live without water Melons cannot grow without vine The revolutionary masses cannot do without the Communist Party Mao SedonaThought is the sun which never sets 8 To Wish Chairman Mao an Eternal Life Beloved Chairman Mao is the red sun in our hearts We have so much to tell you We have so many songs to sing for you Tens of millions of hearts are pounding excitedly Tens of millions of smiling faces turn to the red sun We sincerely wish you an eternal life, an eternal life. 9 The Mao cult produced countless songs like these in the early years of the Cultural Revolution.Literature was cannibalized by a distortion of the educational theories that had nurtured it.
4. The Post-Mao era After Mayo's death in September 1976 and the arrest of the so-called ?Gang of Four], including Mayo's widow, the Cultural Revolution came to an abrupt end. Eden Gapping, the new paramount leader, decided to permit a degree of freedom of expression. The populace responded with enthusiasm, writing wall posters to strongly criticism the policies and leaders they disagreed with.
More importantly, the ex-Red Guard generation, who had grown up under Mao Seeding socialism after 1949, had been used by Mao to overthrow his opponents and had then been sent off to remote countryside for re-education, began to search for a new set of values in the post-Mao wasteland. In China, more than anywhere else, poetry and politics have gone hand in hand. At a time of disillusionment, people looked to poets, writers and artists, instead of the discredited Party and its hired propaganda machine, for enlightenment and fresh hope.Unhappy with the control of the Party, many poets started producing their own unofficial publications, which witnessed some brilliant works not seen for three decades since 1949. One of the prominent poets, Bee Dad (real name Zoo Sheehan) was one of the founding members of the unofficial magazine Today.
Bee Dad was one of the most respected new poets, not with the establishment, but with youth and students (Barb© & Inform, 1989, 16). His poem ?The Answers (Hid) was published in Today: Baseness is the password of the base, Honor is the epitaph of the honorable.Look how the gilded sky is covered With the drifting, crooked shadows of the dead. The Ice Age is over now, But why is there still ice everywhere? The Cape of Good Hope has been discovered, Why do a thousand sails contest in the Dead Sea? I come into this world Bringing only paper, rope, and a shadow, To proclaim before the Judgment The voices of the Judged: 8 9 My own translation. 56 Let me tell you, world, If a thousand challengers lie beneath your feet, Count me as number one thousand and one.I do not believe the sky is blue; I do not believe in the sound of thunder; I do not believe that dreams are false; I do not believe that death has no revenge.
If the sea is destined to breach the dikes, Let the brackish water pour into my heart; If the land is destined to rise, Let humanity choose anew a peak for our existence. A new Juncture and glimmering stars Adorn the unobstructed sky, They are five thousand year old pictographs, The staring eyes of future generations. 10 Literary critics began to discuss the meaning of the ?new poetry] of the late sass and early sass.Xx Jingly wrote a long essay ?The New Poetry: Door to the Soul to defend their right of creativity: Feeling is the soul of poetry.
The single most important characteristic of these poems is that they vibrate with the spirit of their times. The new poets stress the subjectivity and individuality of poetry; they call on it to witness the whole variety of life's emotions. For the young poets of the sass, poetry is a mirror with which to see oneself: it is the history of human soul. The poet creates his own world.This is the new manifesto..
.. The result is not mere poetic imaging, but the poet's instantaneous response to reality. Once the door of the soul and the door of nature have been opened, the world is no longer monotonous and drab; the richness of the soul imbues it with a renewed splendor. 11 When critics were no longer content to criticism the past leaders and began to make adverse comments about the present leaders, including Eden himself, Eden decided to reverse his early decision.
Unofficial Journals were ordered to cease publications, and some of their authors were arrested and received severe prison terms. Under urges, Xx Jingly was obliged to make an abject self-criticism in March 1984 on his long essay ?The New Poetry: Door to the Soul : Recalling the writing of my essay, I feel that I came to make all these errors because during that period, liberalism was rampant and I neglected the study of Marxist theory. And later I did not promptly grasp the essence of a whole series of Party instructions on literature and art.
