Intelligence is a subject that everyone takes for granted until they have to define it. To attribute definition to this most elusive of subjects is extremely difficult and may be seen by some as an impossible endeavour.Individuals differ in their ability to understand complex ideas, to reason and to overcome obstacles.What is Intelligence? - Can intelligence be empirically studied? Some suggest the answers are to be found in the laboratory while others base their theories on natural observation. Intelligence is composed of so many different elements and for each different element there are different theories, making definition of the true nature of intelligence impossible.Definition is sought in the Psychometric approach through the results of IQ test scores.
The timing of tests is supposedly predictive of the brightest amongst us by assuming that only the very cleverest will stay the course. and answer that final question which proves the ability to think at speed and be the deciding factor. Yet these tests only suffice to measure the ability to do a test, not intelligence itself. Testing may also carry a practice factor - the more tests taken, the greater the chance of increasing the score.
Is the nature of Intelligence specific or a market place of multifaceted abilities?One of the principal difficulties in measuring intelligence is the impossibility to attribute to it a standardized, exact definition.Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences suggests that it is possible to identify a multifarious assortment of intelligences. Gardner has identified nine intelligences, they are visual/spatial intelligence, mathematical/logical intelligence, rhythmic/musical intelligence, verbal/linguistic intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence and the ninth is Existential Intelligence which involves the ability to understand the meaning of life and death. On the one hand this approach certainly seems a more objective way to define intelligence as it offers greater accommodation and respect for diversity, however critics such as James Delisle (2001) argue that Gardner's idea of MI loses sight of a correct definition of intelligence and dissects individuals in attempts to prove its hypothesis of all being gifted in some way, and fails to endorse and nurture the truly educationally gifted children who score highly in IQ testing.How has research contributed to our understanding of what intelligence is?Research shows that when faced with problems to solve, people use a simple activity called the Availability Heuristic - which takes into account the easy to recall available information.
Obviously the more experience one has, the easier it will be to use the Availability Heuristic method, and thus suggesting that intelligence is more dependent on experience than logic?Factor AnalysisCharles Spearman believed that intelligence could be recognised as a general factor or 'g' factor that resides in all areas of mental performance, therefore people who score highly in one area will also score similarly in another, giving rise to the 'cluster affect'. He suggested that the 'g' factor could be attributed to differences in mental energy, however when taking into account the mixed bag of strengths and weaknesses in individual mental performance it is unlikely that this could be considered a basic method of measurement for intelligence.Every individual has a certain amount of intelligence which requires to be shared in order to increase but where does intelligence come from? Is it hereditary or acquired? Is it determined by genes or influenced by the environment? This issue is one which attracts intense debate. How can intelligence be measured or appropriately defined if its origins continue to elude researchers.Might intelligence be defined as the ability to perceive more of what we already know? The Watson Selection Tests (l996) measure critical reasoning.
Subjects decide which card to turn over in order to prove or disprove the rule which is that if a card has a vowel on one side it has an even number on the other. The success rate in this test is not high. However in a different situation for instance in a setting than resembles a common social occurrence, it becomes much easier to reason. So perhaps defining intelligence on the grounds of logic may be inaccurate.Roberts Sternberg's Triachic Theory (1985) results from his study of how individuals think; he endeavors to show how different thinking styles affect learning.
His theory, critical of established views of Intelligence -Testing, suggests that IQ tests can only be a partial indication of intelligence.The Triachic Theory of Intelligence is divided into 3 parts.AnalyticalPracticalCreative.Sternberg sees a comparison between individual intelligence and the governmental types which he lists as Monarchic, Hierarchic, Oligarchic, and Anarchic. These styles are reflected in the thinking and behaviour of individuals. Analogies in Sternberg's theory suggest that on every level our thinking styles are reflections or mirror images of the larger picture seen in the character of governments.
The principal focus of this theory is on how individuals use their intelligence, rather than how intelligent they are. A theory which casts further doubt on the ability to define intelligence.His definition of intelligence types is not dissimilar to Gardner's Multi-intelligence theory. With so many possible forms of intelligence, its exact nature or quantity cannot easily be determined, and remains impossible to measure.Cognitive Psychology offers many creative theories ranging from the Psychometric approach to the Multi-intelligence theories.
To be considered intelligent humans require to posses characteristics such as language, reasoning and problem solving abilities, supporters of strong AI might argue that a computer may possess all of these attributes and more, the logic on which computer programmes are based would not enable it to achieve understanding and perhaps it is this quality which allows intelligence to remain impossible to measure or define.;Measurement of intelligence has its roots in the experimental research of Wilhelm Wundt whose work into introspection influenced the development of the scale later used by Binet for intelligence testing. Francis Galton's use of the Gaussian measurement curve allowed him to measure in a statistical mode through which he could make numerical predictions. He realised that a similar method could be applied to the measurement of human intelligence.
Difficulties in Defining Human IntelligenceOver the last century there has been a noted increase in measured IQ, this may be influenced by environmental factors such as improved diet, and life style. However the size of the human brain in the neocortex area has also increased. (storfer 1999). He suggests that brain size is correlated to increased IQ scores.
MRI scanning shows a correlation of +44 between brain size and intelligence scores. (Ruston and Ankney1996). While still in its infancy, it is an area of ongoing research and studies may eventually be able to offer answers to the many as yet unanswered questions regarding the accurate definition of intelligence.One reason for this increase may be the Industrialisation of society. The mechanical solidarity of feudal communities meant muscle rather than brain power was the order of the day.
.There was little need or time for the development of the intellectual mind. The growth of Capitalism necessitated greater mental activity. New skills had to be learned and more emphasis placed on education if success was to be achieved in this new profit motivated society, dependant on advanced technology and industry.
Inherent Intelligence -Why is measurement of intelligence necessary? We all make judgements about people without the use of tests. This one is brilliant at maths and this one has amazing musical talent... teachers do it, parents do it. The expression 'He's so clever, he takes after his father' is common.
The Eugenics movement of 1920s was in no doubt about the hereditary influence on intelligence. Would the ability to determine a more exact genetic contribution to human intelligence make it more easily definable?Lewis Terman revised the original Simon-Binet test for use in the USA. It was renamed the Stanford-Binet Test. Terman believed that widespread IQ testing would highlight genetic inequalities.A considerable genetic influence is suggested in the results of studies of monozygotic twins raised together and separately.
The IQs of monozygotic twins reared apart show a higher correlation than dizygotic twins raised together. (Bouchard et al 1990). Data relating to adopted children shows a greater IQ correlation to their biological parents.Longitudinal Twin Studies by Burt (1943) showed similar findingsThe Milwaukee Project (Heber et al 1968) found strong correlatory evidence linking women with IQs of below 80 and 80 per cent of the children with low IQs.
Intervention studies carried out revealed that during a period when educational assistance was being given, the children's IQ's increased but fell when the intervention was withdrawn. This suggests that social conditions may contribute to a greater degree than hereditary factors. The issue of whether intelligence can be defined as primarily influenced by genetics or by environment has been a subject of extensive research, many scientists and researchers advocate that intelligence is genetically derived however, this is offset by many who argue that intelligence is first and foremost a product of the environment.The American psychologist Henry Goddard was an ardent supporter of the genetic influence on intelligence.
This is reflected in his definition of intelligence which suggests that it is conditioned by an innate nervous mechanism, the individual level of which is determined by chromosomes. (Goddard 1920).The Binet-Simon test (1905) was developed by Alfred Binet in response to concerns that French children with special needs would not be identified, and therefore fail to benefit from the educational system. Measuring the child's mental age was achieved through a series of problem solving questions. The mental age was then divided by the chronological age to arrive at a score that would supposedly predict how well the children would perform in school.
This test was later revised by Lewis Terman for use in testing American school children.Terman thought that widespread testing of school children would reveal thousands of 'defectives' which would result in curtailing the reproduction of 'feeble mindedness' and in the elimination of enormous amounts of crime, pauperism and industrial inefficiency - Terman (1919).Terman went even further in his quest to identify gifted children, with the Stanford Longitudinal study (1921). 643 children took part in this study. When assessed at the age of 10, intelligence assessments showed a mean score of 151 with a range of 130-190.
It is interesting to note that re-assessment showed the level of intelligence did not decrease with age. This study and others are evidence of the scientific ability to define and measure intelligence.Tests and their uses in measuring and defining intelligenceI Q (Intelligence Quotient), or Psychometric tests attempt to measure mental ability.Modern tests measure verbal, mathematical, spatial, memory and reasoning ability. The test is pre tested on a population sample, and graded.
The average score falls within the range of 90-110. Most of the population score with in this margin, however there are some outlier scores and these represent high or low intelligence.The importance of Intelligence testing lies in its ability to measure intelligence. Large corporations, companies, and institutions use these tests to assess the suitability of prospective employees. They are also utilised by the Armed Forces, The Government and the Civil Service who rely on these tests to provide accurately predictive measurement of what is considered to be 'General Intelligence'.
The concept of a general intelligence (the 'g' factor) was devised by Charles Spearman. (Ref: part one), was the statistical result of a variety of tests.Spearman believed that a relationship existed between excelling in one area of intelligence and doing well in another. This theory is supported by modern research which concludes that increased blood flow is noted in only one area of the brain in response to complicated mental activities - The Lateral Prefrontal Cortex (BBC online)Other psychometric tests includeThe Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales - (Wais), developed by David Wechsler (1955), and the Intelligence scale for children - (Wisc) developed in 1949, were a response to feeling that intelligence was not being accurately measured as tests were failing to offer sufficient breadth. Wechsler's defined intelligence as "the Global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal affectively with the environment" He believed that intelligence was more than a single ability, a belief echoed in the test's assessments which are based on verbal and performance tasks.
