Explain and contrast the psychodynamic, humanistic and behaviourist approaches in psychology. How could they be applied to care practice?The term 'psychodynamic' means the active forces within the personality that motivate the behaviour and the inner causes of behaviour, especially the conflict between the different structures that make up the personality. In this approach there are six main points identified; the model of personality development, the philosophy of human nature, the method of psychotherapy, identified dynamic factors that motivate behaviour, focus on role of unconscious, and developed first therapeutic procedures for understanding & modifying structure of an individuals basic character.
In Freud's perspective behaviour is determined by, irrational forces, unconscious motivations, biological and instinctual drives as they evolve through the five psychosexual stages of life, theory driven by belief that problems that arise in life are the result of our early life experiences.The five psychosexual stages of life are the oral stage (birth - 2yrs), anal stage (2 - 4 yrs), phallic stage (4 - 6 yrs), latent period (6 - 12 yrs) and the genital stage (12 yrs - death) The personality consists of the id or, 'pleasure principle', the ego, the 'reality principle' and the superego, 'morality principal'. According to Freud, these three elements are often in conflict. Our biological instincts (id) such as the need for food, elimination and sexual gratification are always in conflict with the restraints of reality (ego) and norms and laws of society (superego). In this theory there are three levels of consciousness, the conscious state, the preconscious and the unconscious. The conscious state is the art of the mind that contains our current thinking, this is the part of the mind that psychodynamic counselling/psychotherapy seeks to make the ultimate destination of our thoughts and feelings which have been repressed in the unconscious.
The preconscious state are thoughts that are out of consciousness because we are either currently preoccupied with something else or we have deliberately chosen to 'put it out of our mind'. Thoughts can be brought into consciousness with relative ease, i.e. Tip of the tongue experiences. The Unconscious state is the most important fundamental concept in psychodynamic thinking, the individual has suppressed material that is considered to be too threatening to the conscious mind, the suppressed material doesn't disappear but continues to make its presence felt through physical symptoms (Somatisation), anxiety, panic attacks, phobias etc.
We have different types of defence mechanisms, repression, reaction formation, denial, projection, displacement, sublimation, regression and rationalization. These defence mechanisms are used to protect the ego against the painful and threatening impulses arising from the id, we distort the reality.One of the key strategies in all Psychodynamic therapies is the uncovering and revelation of unconscious memories, wishes, motivations and fears. These are seen as the cause of emotional disturbance and are not able to be explicitly voiced due to a coping mechanism of internal repression. To uncover the unconscious, Freud used techniques such as free association and the analysis of dreams. In free association, the therapist picks up on any unforced remarks made by the patient that may unwittingly reveal wishes and motivations not able to be explicitly revealed.
A more formalised version of this is the association test introduced by Carl Jung.Here the therapist uses a list of prepared words, maybe fifty or sixty, which are called out one by one to the patient who responds as quickly as possible with the first word that comes to mind. After Jung, other techniques were developed along the same lines that use the patient's interpretation of meaningless or ambiguous images, a prime example being the use of random inkblots in the Rorschach test. In this approach there is a constant struggle between desire to meet biological urges ; realities of living unconscious processes influence behaviour.
The humanistic approach (a.k.a the Phenomenological Approach) is inspired by the work of Carl Rogers and is person-centred it places great importance on empathy, unconditional positive regard, authenticity, similarity and genuineness. The basic views of this approach are that each person perceives a different reality and that individuals have an innate tendency toward growth ; self-actualization. Roger's Self Theory explains that our experiences are crucial in shaping our self-concept, that an individual must accurately experience the "self" in order to reach self-actualization, congruence; how we express our emotions is consistent with how we really feel, positive regard; the approval of others and the conditions of worth; suggestion that our value as a person depends on our actions.
Maslow's Theory explains self-actualization, the most important need in hierarchy.In humanistic therapies the client is treated as a whole person. Therapists view psychological problems as arising from fundamental issues in living, e.g.
the need to deal with such paradoxical challenges as life vs. death, meaning vs. absurdity, freedom vs. determinism, and community vs.
aloneness. (Greening, 1992). They are better seen as ways of being with a client rather than procedures that operate to make things happen in the client. Therapists believe it is the actions and choices by the whole person, as he/she struggles to live, that result in dysfunctional behaviour.
The main idea in the behavioural approach is that behaviour is learned through conditioning. This approach is based on scientific evidence, observable behaviour. Behaviourism is sometimes referred to as 'S-R' psychology (stimulus-response) therefore if a child was to act desirably (stimulus) then the child would be rewarded (response).Behavioural therapies include a family of approaches based on empirical psychological research and having the modification of behaviour and/or cognitions as the main therapeutic goal. The two main traditional approaches in this area are Behaviour Therapy and Cognitive Therapy. Therapy aims to break these maladaptive associations, e.
g. learning not to associate a fearful response with a particular stimulus. Cognitive Therapy is based on the idea that symptoms e.g. of depression and negative thoughts about self e.
g. "I'm worthless" are locked in a vicious cycle, one reinforcing the other (Beck et al. 1980).The negative automatic thoughts are seen as the result of negative experiences early in life, which lead to dysfunctional assumptions.
Therapy comprises four strategies. First, there are behavioural strategies, such as monitoring daily activities using diaries, scheduling activities and task assignments. Second, there are cognitive strategies, such as distraction from negative thinking. Third, there are cognitive-behavioural strategies, such as identifying, questioning and disrupting negative automatic thoughts. Fourth, there are preventative strategies, such as identifying and challenging underlying assumptions, and preparing for future life changes.
The Psychodynamic approach was the first personality ; psychotherapy theory, it emphasised on sexuality as influence, it identified the importance of early childhood experience, developed the concept of unconscious, and developed the scientific approach to mental health on continuum from physical health. However it is a pessimistic and deterministic approach to personality, it is pathology based theory, there are no controlled studies, overemphasis on differences between men and women and it is unconcerned with interpersonal relations, individual identity and adaptation over one's lifetime. The key features of this approach are that early experiences have a major impact on the development on our conscious and unconscious mind. Adult personality and behaviour are maintained by the unconscious as well as the conscious mind.
Attachment is also identified as a key feature of early experience.The Humanistic approach is directly opposed to the medical-like model of an expert professional diagnosing what is wrong and then treating the disorder, which is the main concept of both the Psychodynamic and Behavioural approaches. In the Humanistic approach the individual is treated as a whole person as opposed to the part-person model of other approaches. This approach explains that neither the environment nor our early experiences control our personality and behaviour but that people have an in-built tendency to develop their potential, self-actualisation. Problems with conditional regard or unmet needs prevent people from fulfilling their potential. An individual's view of themselves (self-concept) will control the development of their personality and behaviour.
In the behaviourist approach it signifies that the environment controls how we develop. Our behaviour is controlled through classical conditioning and reinforcement. It was also emphasised that people also learn through imitating the behaviour of others.Within the psychodynamic casework the carer would use procedures, which offered support and affirmation while the relationship between the carer and client was being maintained, therefore reducing stress.
They would also use modifying procedures, which aimed to reduce outside pressure helping the client to gain insight into their individual situation. Behavioural and humanistic psychology have been responsible of a range of techniques within caring.Behaviourism or behaviour modification tends to focus on externally observable problematic behaviour and tries to change or modify that specific behaviour for the benefits of the client and/or for others. It studies how people become conditioned and how this can be used to change behaviour by punishment and reward.
It is sometimes referred to as the 'token system' where is care settings something is withheld for unacceptable behaviour or a reward is given for acceptable behaviour. In humanistic psychology is considered as 'person-centered therapy'. Using this approach the carer must be empathic and show an understanding how the individual feels about the situation they are in and to help the client see that they are the key to the healing process.
