Throughout this essay I will critically analyse the principles and processes of curriculum design, looking at how they apply to my own curriculum. I will look at both formal and informal elements of curriculum and also my own inclusive practice and how effective it is. Let me begin with the definition of curriculum.
The word originated in Greece where it literally meant a course. The running and chariot tracks were the course it related to. In Latin the curriculum was a racing chariot and currere meant to run, Smith(1996,2000).Over the years the curriculum has evolved with political, economic and social environments all having their influences. According to the New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), curriculum is described as the subjects that make up a course of study within a school or college. I would argue that a curriculum is followed in more than just a college or school as, for example, learning can be in various work places with internal training needs.
Further Education may be accessed in the work place in such forms as National Vocational Qualification studies.This is run by a college who supervises staff, trainees and mentors. The curriculum, I believe, is also more than just the scheme of work or syllabus set by an awarding body. It is an overall educational package which incorporates the whole learning experience including the establishments’ facilities, the engagement with other learners, the tutor and more importantly, I believe, the wider range of life skills that students gain from the course itself.
John Kerr (1968) told us that curriculum is all learning carried out in groups or individually, both inside and outside the school environment.I work for a small private company which supplies training to all care staff within the local Council and other leading organisations, requiring training in either First Aid or Moving and Handling. Our aim is to provide up to date and accurate training for any one who requires it. Government legislation dictates that anyone working with people in a caring role must hold up to date certificates in both First Aid and Moving and Handling. As a training organisation we provide training to children in schools from the age of thirteen; however our main focal point of training is with adults in employment with the council in various departments.Each curriculum will be designed to motivate each individual area.
I do this by asking the trainees where they work and which client group they work with. I also ask them what they hope to achieve from the course and incorporate this within both the discussion and practical work. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 is the umbrella for the safety regulations which help to keep us all safe at work. The Manual Handling Regulations 1992, the Health and Safety First Aid Regulations 1981, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Approved Code of Practice and Guidance for First Aid at Work all help towards curriculum development.The HSE give trainers curriculum outcomes, but leave the specific details to the St.
John Ambulance or British Red Cross for guidance on how to achieve these. I believe this to be the correct course of action as all training establishments can rely on these organisations to be up to date on relevant research, ensuring all training organisations are training the same procedures otherwise there may be great confusion for both the trainer and the trainee. The curriculum is delivered using the Outcomes (Product) model or Content model.As a nurse working within learning disability, I saw the value of such models as the building blocks for change, but not necessarily ‘learning’.
Being able to achieve a certain outcome in 1st Aid may not prove that learning has taken place, and so further questioning of the related subject and the trainees understanding of the subject must be included before a certificate of competence can be awarded. There are a number of approaches widely discussed to aid in curriculum development.The four main models which are generally accepted are the Outcome (or Product) model, the Content model, the Process model and the Situational model. I will try to explain a little about each of these in turn. The Outcome or Product model is closely associated with the works of Ralph Tyler and Frank Bobbit. The works of the American theorists dates back to as early as 1918.
Bobbits work ‘The Curriculum’ talked of a learning cycle focusing on learning targets which are often used in military teaching as it breaks jobs into processes so as not to allow room for thought.Tyler (1949), questioned how learning experiences can be selected by the teacher to be useful in attaining objectives or be organized for effective instruction and evaluation and how staff may work on curriculum building. Blooms (1965) Taxonomy taught us to teach to a higher level, aiming for our students to not just be able to answer a question but also analyse and evaluate and create from information they had learnt. The Content model tends to emphasize the importance of learning skills and ideas within a predetermined domain.
The syllabus is a list of facts or ideas where the teachers or trainers act as facilitators of instruction rather than simply lecturers; although many content-based programs for the gifted place a strong emphasis on lecture and discussion, VanTassel-Baska (1986). The curriculum is organized in sequences of its content and so by its very nature, making a proficiency-based model for achievement outcomes is very feasible. Keating, (1976), Benbow and Stanley, (1983) talk about how the content model has been utilized effectively by talent search programs, particularly in mathematics.VanTassel-Baska (1984) has shown the effectiveness of the model in teaching Latin, and foreign language teachers have used the model for many years to ensure grammatical rules are mastered with students learning English. Paul Hurst (1974) also believes that the Content model is particularly good for teaching in schools.
Arguably this is an out dated thought and we should be looking more towards other models. The Process model is argued by modern thinkers such as Dewey, Piaget, Bruner and Stenhouse. They say that learning is a personal achievement rather than a particular aim.It favours learner diversity with a large amount of student participation.
The model focuses on the process of learning for each individual rather than the end outcome or aim. Stenhouse (1975) said a curriculum is a way of communicating principles which are essential parts of the educational process. It can be questioned and is also capable of change when being put into practice. The learner develops processes and procedures to help them with ways of learning individual to them. The fourth most popular model is the Situational model.
This model is all about the ‘hidden’ curriculum.The learner does not only learn what is taught, but soaks up knowledge from all around the learning environment. The curriculum is more than a mere set of written plans, but also involves the acting out of the plans, the evaluation of the plans and everything that is going on around the whole experience. By using Lawton's (1983) approach to curriculum design, a first Aider would meet the competencies required throughout their training in an ever changing society. Skilbeck (1984), Lawton (1973) and Hargreaves (1982) we are told by Gilling (1989) all argue with the common core framework.Our company offers various training packages for the varying needs of the customer.
All the courses are delivered using the Outcome and Content models as it is a requirement of the course to meet a list of set targets. If the course is a certificated two or three day course, then set criteria must not only be met but passed to achieve a certificate of competence. The shorter courses have differing criteria and are much more flexible in terms of outcome. All the courses have a base level by which achievement is measured, and as a trainer I only have a certain amount of flexibility in the way I deliver the course criteria.
The Situational model is really useful when training 1st Aid as scenario work then becomes fun, exciting, difficult and sometimes nerve wracking, all of which add to the learning experience and make it more memorable. Using the Process model with each individual learner aids the person to take a journey. They may not necessarily make the correct decision in terms of what to do in a given scenario, but the way they can talk about what they think they might do and why they think they might do it is all about the learning experience.Every 1st Aid situation is going to be different, so knowing that the learner can problem solve is vital learning throughout the course and afterwards. They may not be able to meet the needed ‘outcome’ (see appendix) to be given a certificate of competence as a registered 1st Aider and may not be able to follow the required set of principles as in the content model, but may have met their own personal goal, whatever that might be.
I am therefore restricted in the curriculum content and the outcome that should be achieved on certain courses, but can also be quite flexible with the scenario work. A curriculum consists of experiences developed from learners' needs and characteristics (as opposed to the needs of society), and a large measure of freedom for both teacher and learner is a necessary condition for education of this kind. ' (Kelly 1982:140) By trying to involve every participant on the course within the scenario work and encouraging learner feedback to all, by every individual in their own way, sharing life experiences with the group, I am allowing for inclusive learning. As I have explained, the 1st Aid curriculum follows different models of curriculum design throughout the course, therefore enabling inclusive practice.
The Classical Humanist as instructed by Sacrates and Plato (428-348BC), tells us that education needs to be taught or ‘put in’. This can be quite academic and may not be suitable for everyone. The Content model follows this principle and again 1st Aid curriculum does use this model in certain circumstances such as ‘DRAB’. DRAB stands for Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing and tells the student to follow this systematic approach in any 1st Aid situation in order to keep themselves safe and hopefully their casualty. The three day certificated course has a summative assessment as well as continuous assessment.The Liberal Humanist Ideology talks about all men are equal and that everyone should have the same opportunities.
We should tease out the individuals’ potential, which in a 1st Aid setting is best done by activity and interaction. Rousseau (1712-1778) was a key ideologist and had opposing views to the earlier Classical Humanist views of Socrates and Plato. These radical views are linked to the Outcome/Product model which, in my curriculum area state that the learner will demonstrate Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation to a standard which will have a ‘pass’ outcome in the final examination.Prime minister James Callaghan (1976) made a speech which was instrumental in changing education in Britain. He believed we needed a skilled workforce whose education should be funded by the state. This plays a large part within my role as a 1st Aid trainer for the local council, as they supply funding for its employees.
If funding is cut from the local council, this may have a knock on effect on demand for training. A skilled workforce needs adequate training in both 1st Aid and Moving and Handling whether it is of animate or inanimate objects.A state funded education meant that the Government would require some sort of value for money quality assurance, as well as a centralised curriculum. The Instrumentalist model sees the teacher as a technician who utilises the Situational model of curriculum.
During scenario work I work closely with all participants both as a group and on an individual basis. Encouraging each participant to discuss and share their own 1st Aid or life experiences. This involves every learner and promotes interaction between the group.By the second day of a three day course, the group has usually started to gel together quite well. They usually begin to discuss any issues they may have with regards to 1st Aid. This varies from personal traumas, or work related worries.
This gives me a great opportunity to find out what the course can do for them. It is important to distinguish between what is a formal curriculum and what is the informal or hidden curriculum. By discovering each learners own requirements of the course, I also discover what their motivators are.If the learner is able to meet their own goals as well as the formal curriculum attainments, then I believe this is a great measure of my own personal teaching success. It is important that education is not just about passing a certain ‘test’, but is about the ‘learner’ and how they measure their own success. Curriculum should be individual to each learner as much as is practicably possible.
Delivering 1st Aid in a diverse and all engaging manner will aid with equality and diversity issues. I offer both written and verbal questions to diversify the questioning techniques.I simplify lectures and questions to a normal every day language where needed rather than anything too medical so that everyone can understand. I work in a large multicultural city where there are many issues for consideration.
I am aware of these issues and plan for these on the first day of training, however by the second day everyone is hopefully more tolerant of each other and their respective issues. I then actively encourage all participants to work with male and female, older and younger, new and old associates.This breaks down barriers as a casualty may not always be the sex or race that you would prefer. A casualty in need is a casualty waiting for a rescuer to respond.
We use power point and practical scenarios to keep motivation high and a lift has been installed to enable anyone with physical disabilities to at least access the room, although I do question if more could be done. The company run courses for individual groups of people i. e. school children, older carers, carers of the elderly, and carers of children.
We also run translated courses in language or sign.The classes can be mixed or specific. I question that if a class is only involving a certain race of people is it really encouraging integration within the society. It does however encourage the participants to relax and enjoy the course, which clearly aids with learning. Although we offer a high standard and wide range of quality training, I believe we can expand our curriculum further.
In today’s society of increasing stress and strains, I believe we should offer ‘Mental Health’ 1st Aid training to all people who would like it.Mental health issues are rising dramatically not only due to increased pressure and stress, but also due to the high number of drug and alcohol users. These users are starting from an increasingly young age and parents, friends and work colleagues need to be aware of the symptoms manifestation. Studies in Australia have shown that there had been significant improvement for people feeling confident enough to help others (Kitchener 2006), and also to helping themselves (Kitchener 2004). Macdonald (2008) reported a study carried out in Hull of 200 people participating in 1st Aid Mental Health training.
Again the findings were positive with people acknowledging their increased confidence to help a family member, friend, work colleague or themselves. I feel the main aim of curriculum design should be to encompass every learner. It should be about effective teaching and learning and not just about the design of a curriculum or syllabus. The hidden curriculum is equally as important and should be incorporated into the design where possible, focussing on the positive outcomes and not the negative.
Inclusive practice needs to be continually addressed as every group of learners will be different: they are after all individuals.
